Agriculture in the Central Chernozem Zone
Central Chernozem Zone — the most important agroeconomic region of Russia, possessing great potential for agricultural production. It includes Voronezh, Belgorod, Lipetsk, Kursk, and Tambov oblasts. The land fund of the zone, according to state accounting data, is 16.8 million ha, of which 13.2 million ha, or 80%, are agricultural land. Agricultural land includes:
- arable land — 10.8 million ha (81.4%);
- hayfields — 0.6 million ha (4.5%);
- pastures — 1.7 million ha (12.6%).
Forests and shrubs occupy 1.7 million ha (10.1%). Chernozem soils predominate. The Central Chernozem Zone is located in forest-steppe (83.3%) and steppe (16.7%) natural-climatic zones and is divided into approximately two equal parts by the Don River. The entire territory can be divided into 12 soil-climatic subzones.
Natural and Climatic Conditions
The main features of agriculture in arid steppe and forest-steppe areas are moisture deficit and the risk of wind and water soil erosion. Overall, the natural-economic conditions of the Central Chernozem Zone are favorable for agriculture.
Climate
The climate is moderate- and mid-continental, with continentality increasing from northwest to southeast, primarily in the Trans-Volga steppe. The average annual air temperature is 5…6.4 °C; the sum of active temperatures above 10 °C in the northwest is 2300-2400 °C, and in the south 2800-3000 °C. The frost-free period in the forest-steppe is 150-155 days, and in the steppe 160-165 days.
Annual precipitation in the forest-steppe is 500-550 mm, and in the steppe 450-490 mm. The zone is characterized by insufficient and unstable moisture, especially during the growing season. Of the total observation years, 25-30% were dry. Droughts are often accompanied by dry winds, the frequency of which increases from northwest to southeast: the number of dry-wind days in the forest-steppe is 12-15, and in the steppe 20-40. Weak and moderate dry winds occur, as a rule, annually throughout the territory. The hydrothermal coefficient is 0.9-1.2.
The aridity of the climate is aggravated by erosion caused by meltwater and storm runoff. For example, spring meltwater runoff on average per year is: in the northwest in the forest-steppe part of the zone — 70-80 mm, in the central part — 50-60 mm, and in the southeast in the steppe part — 30-40 mm.
Soils
The soils of the Central Chernozem Zone are represented by chernozems, forest, sod-podzolic, meadow-chernozem, and other types. East of the Voronezh and Don rivers, typical thick chernozems with humus content up to 9-9.5% are widespread. In the southern part of the forest-steppe, there are ordinary chernozems with humus content of 7-8.5%. In the south of Voronezh Oblast, ordinary shallow and southern chernozems with humus content of 5-5.5% are widespread.
In the northwest and north of the zone, forest (gray), sod-podzolic, meadow-chernozem soils, and podzolized chernozems predominate. In the steppe, there are chernozems and chestnut soils in combination with solonetzic soils.
Overall, the soil cover of the Central Chernozem Zone is characterized by high potential biological productivity. V. V. Dokuchaev called Russian chernozem the “tsar of soils.” Nevertheless, study of the qualitative state of agricultural land shows the need for preservation, improvement, and increase of fertility.
Relief
The formation of the relief of the Central Chernozem Zone is historically linked to the development of the Don River basin. The western right-bank part is the Central Russian Upland. Watershed elevations reach up to 286 m above sea level. The density of the gully-ravine network is 1.1-1.3 km per 100 ha.
The left-bank side is divided into elevated (southeastern) and plain (northeastern) parts. The southeastern left bank is represented by the Kalach Upland, which is strongly dissected by hollows of ancient runoff, gullies, and river valleys. The height above sea level is 200-300 m, and the density of the gully-ravine network is 1.2-1.5 km per 100 ha. The northeastern left bank is the Oka-Don Lowland with absolute elevations of 120-150 m above sea level.
According to land accounting data, in the Central Chernozem Zone arable lands are located: on slopes of 1-3° — 35.6%, 3-5° — 13.9%; more than 5° — 7%; on average for the zone — 55%. Such hilly relief, against the background of significant snow (solid) precipitation up to 140-170 mm and meltwater, as well as storm rains, creates an erosion-hazardous situation. The highest share of arable land located on slopes is noted in Belgorod Oblast — more than 50%, Lipetsk — up to 40%, Voronezh — more than 30%, and Tambov — about 30% of areas. Washout, depending on the agronomic background, ranges from 5 to 50 t/ha.
Vegetation Cover
The vegetation cover of the Central Chernozem Zone is represented by natural and cultural formations. The territory is highly developed; lands used in agricultural production make up about 80% of the total area, forest cover is 10-12%; natural hayfields and pastures have been preserved in small sizes along the floodplains of the Don and Voronezh rivers.
Forest cover in steppe areas is insignificant. Herbaceous vegetation is mainly represented by crops of cultivated plants.
In agricultural production, cereal crops predominate, including winter crops, row crops (corn for silage and grain, sugar beet, sunflower, potato). Perennial grasses, despite their erosion-control effectiveness, account for only 3-5%.
Main Tasks of the Farming System
The main tasks of the farming system:
- moisture accumulation and drought control, ensuring high and stable crop yields over years;
- preservation and improvement of soil fertility;
- prevention of water and wind erosion;
- optimization of the sown area structure taking into account the natural and economic features of the zone;
- preservation of natural landscapes;
- ensuring ecological protection of the environment;
- building a rational fertilizer system, providing for the application primarily of phosphorus fertilizers.
All elements of the farming system should be aimed at the accumulation and rational use of soil moisture.
In the Central Chernozem Zone, the leading branch of agriculture is grain production. The main grain crops include winter wheat, winter rye, oats, barley; grain legumes — peas, vetch; groat crops — millet and buckwheat; industrial crops — sugar beet, sunflower. The Central Chernozem region is the main producer of sugar beet.
Corn for silage, green fodder, grain, perennial and annual grasses, and root crops make up 25-30% of sown areas.
Crop Rotation System
The following crop rotations are recommended for the Central Chernozem Zone:
- 1 — clean and occupied fallows, peas, 2 — winter cereal crops, 3 — row crops, 4 — spring cereal crops.
Winter cereal crops are important to place after good predecessors, the best of which is clean fallow.
It is possible to expand grain crop areas above 60% with a high farming culture through the introduction of pea crops; in the southern districts of Voronezh and Belgorod oblasts — peas and corn for grain. In areas where cultivation of corn for grain is impossible, groat crops are introduced to expand grain crops. Expansion with peas and corn for grain requires additional measures to control weeds and pests.
In the crop rotation system, level lands are mainly allocated to row crops, if necessary with clean fallows; slope lands — to soil-protective rotations with a high share of perennial grasses and solid-seeded crops. On sandy, floodplain, and irrigated lands, rotations are introduced that take into account their fertility.
Crop rotation systems are determined by the specialization and soil-climatic conditions of farm management. At grain enterprises, grain-fallow, grain-row, and grain-fallow-row rotations are introduced. At enterprises with grain-livestock specialization, rotations with perennial and annual grasses are also added. It is economically expedient to allocate near farms farmstead rotations and plots for the production of green and succulent fodder.
Rotations of grain-sugar beet specialization can be 4-5-field with grain saturation up to 60%, sugar beet up to 20-25%, fodder crops up to 15-20%:
- 1 — black and occupied fallow, peas, 2 — winter crops, 3 — sugar beet, 4 — spring cereals, 5 — corn for grain, corn for silage.
At enterprises growing sunflower, 7-8-field rotations can be introduced with a total area of industrial crops up to 20-25%, half of which is occupied by beet and half by sunflower:
- 1 — clean or occupied fallow, 2 — winter cereals, 3 — sugar beet, 4 — spring cereals, 5 — peas, 6 — winter cereals, 7 — sunflower, 8 — spring cereals.
Rotations with dairy-grain-sugar beet specialization can be eight-, nine-, or ten-field, with the share of industrial crops in the sown area at about 20%. In the forest-steppe zone, most is sugar beet; in the steppe — sunflower:
- for the forest-steppe zone: 1 — clean and occupied fallow, 2 — winter wheat, 2 — sugar beet, 4 — barley, 5 — peas, 6 — winter wheat and rye, 7 — corn for silage, 8 — barley, 9 — sunflower, 10 — barley, oats; 1 — occupied fallow, 2 — winter wheat, 3 — sugar beet, 4 — barley with alfalfa undersowing, 5-6 — alfalfa, 7 — corn.
- for the steppe zone: 1 — clean fallow, 2 — winter wheat, 3 — sugar beet, corn for grain, 4 — barley, oats, 5 — peas, 6 — winter wheat, rye, 7 — corn for silage, millet, 8 — barley, 9 — sunflower.
In the given rotations, 3-4-field links with clean and occupied fallow, peas, and corn for silage can be considered independent links.
In northwestern areas with sufficient moisture and on irrigated lands, two fields of sugar beet can be introduced:
- 1 — clean and occupied fallow, 2 — winter wheat, 3 — sugar beet, 4 — barley, 5 — peas, 6 — winter wheat, 7 — sugar beet, 8 — barley, 9 — corn for silage, 10 — sunflower.
Mother beet is placed after winter wheat in the first link, while steckling beet — in the second link.
Perennial grasses (clover, sainfoin), as a rule, are introduced into rotation after barley and used as occupied fallow for one cutting under winter crops. Alfalfa crops with good yield are advisable to use for 3-4 years, for which it is cultivated in a diversion field according to the scheme (M. I. Sidorov):
- 1 — clean and occupied fallow, 2 — winter wheat, 3 — sugar beet + groat crops, 4 — peas, 5 — winter wheat, 6 — barley, 7 — corn for silage, 8 — barley, oats, 9 — sunflower + groat crops, 10 — alfalfa (diversion field).
A year before plowing alfalfa, it is undersown in the sixth field under barley.
Soil-protective crop rotations are used on slope lands with steepness more than 3°. To prevent runoff and soil washout, they are saturated with crops with high soil-protective cover during the most erosion-hazardous periods. Such crops include primarily perennial grasses and winter solid-seeded crops. The steeper the slope, the greater should be the saturation with perennial grasses. Strongly eroded slopes are allocated to grassing.
The following schemes of soil-protective rotations are recommended:
- 1 — annual grasses with undersowing of perennial grasses, 2-4 — perennial grasses, 5 — winter rye, 6 — barley;
- 1 — barley with undersowing of perennial grasses, 2-3 — perennial grasses, 4 — winter wheat, 5 — millet.
At enterprises with livestock specialization, fodder (farmstead) rotations with small areas and short rotation are used. Approximate schemes of fodder rotations (M. I. Sidorov):
- 1 — corn for green fodder + sainfoin, 2 — sainfoin for one cutting + corn for green fodder, 3 — fodder cucurbits, 4 — annual grasses, 5 — winter crops for green fodder + corn for green fodder, 6 — fodder beet;
- 1 — annual grasses for green fodder, 2 — winter rye for green fodder + corn, 3 — fodder beet, 4 — corn for green fodder, 5 — fodder cucurbits, 6 — alfalfa (diversion field).
When fodder rotations are saturated with alfalfa and winter cereals, they can also perform a soil-protective function.
Soil Tillage System
Under conditions of frequent droughts, risk of water and wind erosion, and the soil-climatic conditions and requirements of agricultural crops, the soil tillage system in the Central Chernozem Zone should solve the following tasks:
- maximum accumulation and preservation of moisture, weakening the negative impact of recurring droughts;
- prevention of water and wind erosion;
- preservation of humus and mineral nutrients;
- ensuring control of weeds, pathogens, and pests;
- creation of optimal conditions for crop development and obtaining high and stable yields.
When developing the soil tillage system, the following are taken into account: soil type, degree of erosion susceptibility, amount and regime of atmospheric precipitation, degree of aridity, requirements of cultivated crops, crop rotation, weed infestation, and predecessors.
In arid and erosion-hazardous areas, primarily on light soils and slopes, preference is given to soil-protective tillage.
In areas of sufficient moisture, plowing is effective: for grains and legumes to 20-22 cm, for row crops to 25-27 cm. For winter cereals, especially in years with moisture deficiency in autumn, surface treatments with disk and flat-cutting implements are carried out.
The soil tillage system for winter crops includes treatment of clean, occupied fallows, and non-fallow predecessors. Immediately after harvesting the predecessor, stubble disking is carried out with disk or flat-cutting implements to a depth of 8-10 cm to preserve and accumulate moisture and provoke the germination of weeds. On fields not subject to the risk of water erosion, where organic fertilizers are applied, plowing is carried out to a depth of not less than 20-22 cm. On soils subject to moderate and strong water erosion, especially on southern exposure slopes, treatment with non-moldboard implements or plowing across the slope and along contours, as well as slotting, is carried out.
In late autumn, to protect against water erosion and accumulate moisture, pitting, furrowing, etc. are carried out.
On fields with strongly compacted soil, to prevent surface runoff of meltwater and accumulate moisture, late-autumn loosening or slotting with special deep loosening implements, chisels, and slot cutters is used. These techniques are performed when evaporation of water from the soil surface becomes minimal or completely stops.
In the winter period, snow retention is carried out with snowplows or sled compactors. Before snowmelt, work is carried out to regulate meltwater runoff, for example, strip compaction and blackening of snow across the slope or along contours.
In the spring-summer period, all field work is carried out with consideration for moisture preservation. To provoke weed germination and destroy them, early spring harrowing, cultivation, and sowing of wings are carried out.
On slope lands, to combat erosion, strip placement of perennial grasses in fallow or wing crops in June-July of sunflower and corn in the form of 1-2 rows across the slope with a distance of 25-40 cm from each other is advisable.
Re-plowing of fallow should be excluded. Pre-sowing cultivation is performed to the depth of seed sowing. For decompaction of the soil and prevention of erosion processes on fields of winter cereals across the slope immediately after sowing, slotting to a depth of 40-45 cm is carried out.
Occupied fallows are widely used in the Central Chernozem Zone, especially in the forest-steppe. As fallow-occupying crops, winter rye for green fodder, vetch-oat mixture for green fodder and hay, peas and pea-oat mixture for green fodder, corn for green fodder, sainfoin for one cutting, and early potato are used.
In wet years after fallow-occupying crops, which free the field 1.5-2 months before sowing winter crops, fertilizer is applied and plowing to 16-18 cm or disking with simultaneous harrowing is performed. Then, as abundant rains fall, harrowing, cultivation when weeds appear, and pre-sowing cultivation with flat-cutting working organs to a depth of 6-8 cm are carried out.
In dry years, plowing is replaced by surface treatment with BDT-7 or BDT-10 implements with harrowing, and pre-sowing cultivation with flat-cutting working organs to a depth of 6-8 cm.
After fallow-occupying crops that free the field 2.5 months before, plowing is carried out, fertilizers are applied; further treatment — harrowing and pre-sowing cultivation with flat-cutting working organs to 6-8 cm.
Soil Tillage System for Winter Crops
When cultivating winter cereals after perennial and annual grasses, green conveyor crops, and on fields freed a month or more before predecessors, according to data of the VNII of Agriculture and Soil Protection from Erosion, soil treatment to 12-16 cm with subsequent slotting immediately after sowing until seed germination is advisable. Main soil tillage on such fields should be completed no later than June 15.
When cultivating winter crops after corn for silage and grain legumes on fields not infested with rhizomatous and root-suckering weeds, surface treatment with disk and flat-cutting implements immediately after harvesting the predecessor, surface loosening, and bringing the seed layer of soil to an optimal fine-clod state with full readiness for sowing winter crops is advisable. The first surface loosening is carried out with disk harrows type LDG-5, LDG-10, heavy disk BDT or needle harrows BIG-3A not less than in 2 passes. The second treatment is carried out with heavy disk harrows, cultivators-flat cutters, for example, KPG-2.2, KPSH-5, KPSH-9, anti-erosion cultivators KPE-3.8, and moldboard harrows. The loosening depth of the second treatment is not more than 10-12 cm. Implements are aggregated with harrows. In dry autumn conditions, additional pre-sowing soil packing is carried out.
It is optimal to use combined units consisting of a flat cutter KPP-2.2, harrow BIG-3 and roller section ZKK-6A or special machines RVK-3.6, AKP-2.5. If there is enough time before sowing winter crops and weeds or soil crust appear, additional cultivation to a depth of not more than 8-10 cm is carried out. Before sowing, pre-sowing cultivation is performed to the depth of seed placement.
If from harvest to sowing winter crops less than one month remains, a surface treatment system is used regardless of the predecessor. The main soil tillage for winter crops must be completed by August 1.
Soil Tillage System for Spring Crops
Spring grains and other crops are sown after non-fallow predecessors, that is, after fall plowing. For fall plowing, up to 90-96% of all arable land is annually allocated.
The main factor limiting the yield of spring crops is moisture deficit. Therefore, the task of fall plowing is maximum accumulation and preservation of moisture in the soil and application of organic and mineral fertilizers, and cleaning fields of weeds.
The techniques of the soil tillage system for spring crops in the autumn-winter and spring periods up to sowing should be moisture-saving and soil-protective.
On new arable lands not subject to water erosion, ordinary fall plowing is carried out, including stubble disking with disk harrows to a depth of 6-8 cm immediately after harvest, then after 15-20 days to a depth determined by the requirements of the cultivated crop.
On fields infested with root-suckering weeds and allocated for important industrial crops, for example, sugar beet, potato, sunflower, fall treatment includes stubble disking with disk harrows to 6-8 cm following grain harvest, disking with moldboard harrows to 12-14 cm with simultaneous harrowing after 15-20 days, and plowing 15-20 days after the second disking.
After perennial grasses, corn, grain legumes, and groat crops, plowing with preliminary disking is also carried out. Pre-plowing disking is performed immediately after harvest not less than in two passes to 10-12 cm.
After harvesting sugar beet, the soil is loosened to a depth of 30-35 cm. If little tops remain and the soil is sufficiently loose, plowing is replaced by treatment with flat cutters-looseners or chisel cultivators to a depth of 20-25 cm.
On slope lands, on light and sandy loam soils subject to erosion, non-moldboard treatment is used. The NII of Agriculture and Soil Protection from Erosion recommends, when cultivating spring grains and annual grasses after stubble predecessors and weed-free fields, carrying out main soil treatment with flat cutters followed by slotting. Immediately after the field is freed from the predecessor, surface loosening to 6-8 cm with needle harrows type BIG-3 in two passes is carried out. After 1.5-2 weeks, with mass weed regrowth, fields are treated with herbicide. On the 10-12th day after herbicide treatment, surface treatment with cultivators-flat cutters, for example, KPP-2-2, KPSH-5, KPSH-9, to a depth of 12-14 cm is carried out. After another 1.5-2 weeks after the first treatment with flat cutters, the soil is loosened to 20-22 cm. Layer-by-layer loosening promotes the formation of a fine-clod structure, destroys weeds, and promotes moisture accumulation and preservation.
Soil Tillage System for Row Crops
High efficiency in the soil tillage system for row crops is achieved with improved or layer-by-layer fall treatment, consisting of:
- stubble disking with disk implements to a depth of 6-8 cm in 2-3 passes immediately after harvesting the predecessor;
- disking with moldboard harrows with simultaneous harrowing or treatment with cultivators-flat cutters to 12-14 cm 2-3 weeks after the first disking;
- plowing to a depth depending on the crop with application of 30-40 t/ha manure and mineral fertilizers 2-3 weeks after the second disking;
- leveling the surface with cultivators KPE-3.8, KPS-4, KPG-4 simultaneously with harrowing.
In recent years, semi-fallow (fall) treatment has become widespread, used on soils not subject to erosion. The main treatment is carried out in August — early September. Spring pre-sowing treatment of fall plowing consists of early spring harrowing, cultivation, leveling, and packing the soil.
In conditions of a dry spring and moisture deficiency, especially for sowing small-seeded crops, pre-sowing packing of fall plowing with ring-spur rollers is carried out.
On fields where late crops are sown, 2-3 pre-sowing cultivations are performed. The first cultivation with harrowing is carried out to a depth of 10-12 cm simultaneously or following cultivation for early spring crops as weeds grow; the second — to the depth of seed sowing immediately before sowing late crops, when the soil temperature is 10-12 °C. In some years with increased moisture, density, and weediness of the soil, a third cultivation is used. The last pre-sowing cultivation is performed immediately before sowing strictly to the specified depth, without a time gap.
Fertilizer System
Compensation of nutrients in the fertilizer system at low, medium, and high provision of soils with mobile forms of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium should be respectively:
- at low — 70-90, 160-200, 80-100%;
- at medium — 90-110, 200-220, 100-120%;
- at high — 50-70, 100-120, 60-80%.
In the Central Chernozem Zone, phosphorus fertilizers are effective; potassium fertilizers give a small yield increase, and on solonetzic soils and solonetzes they are completely ineffective. The most effective is the complex application of lime, organic, and mineral fertilizers in rotations. The use of significant doses of only mineral fertilizers leads to deterioration of the physical-chemical properties of the soil.
Mineral Fertilizers
Mineral fertilizers are applied for sugar beet, winter wheat, corn, potato and vegetable crops, and perennial grasses. Not less than 2/3 of the total application rate is applied in autumn under plowing. For other crops, they are applied locally in rows and as top dressing.
Organic Fertilizers
With limited reserves of mineral fertilizers, the missing nutrients for the planned yield are compensated by organic fertilizers. To prevent a decrease in humus reserves, create a positive balance of organic matter, and increase the fertility of the Central Chernozem Zone, it is necessary to systematically increase the volumes of production and use of organic fertilizers. In some areas, peat in the form of peat composts and sapropel are used as organic fertilizers.
Organic fertilizers are primarily applied in rotations saturated with clean fallows, sugar beet, and other row crops. With a share of row crops and clean fallow up to 40-50% of the total arable area, the dose of organic fertilizers is not less than 10-12 t/ha; at 20-40% — not less than 7-8 t/ha. When rotations are saturated with perennial grasses up to 20-30%, the dose of organic fertilizers is up to 5 t/ha. Organic fertilizers at a dose of 30-50 t/ha are applied in the field of black fallow, for sugar beet, corn, potato, and vegetable crops.
In the forest-steppe and steppe parts of the Central Chernozem Zone, the limiting yield factor is moisture; therefore, the application of agronomic techniques aimed at accumulation and preservation of moisture will increase the efficiency of fertilizers. According to data of the Agricultural Research Institute of the Southeast (Saratov), the effectiveness of manure in wet years is 1.5 times greater than in dry years, due to a better water regime and slow decomposition of manure. In this zone, the depth of fertilizer placement also matters: the upper soil layer dries quickly, so applied nutrients become unavailable to plants.
Table. Fertilizer system in a grain-sugar beet rotation (manure in t, NPK in kg per 1 ha).
| Rotation | Main fertilizer | Pre-sowing fertilizer | Top dressing | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| manure | N | P | K | N | P | K | N | P | K | |
| Occupied fallow | — | 20-30 | 60-80 | 40-60 | 10 | 10 | — | — | — | — |
| Winter crops | 20-30 | — | 40-60 | 30-50 | — | 10 | — | 60 | 30 | 20 |
| Sugar beet | — | 60-80 | 80-100 | 80-100 | 15 | 15 | — | 20 | 30 | 30 |
| Spring cereals + clover | — | 40-60 | 60-90 | 60-90 | — | 10 | — | — | — | — |
| Clover 1st year of use | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — |
| Winter crops | — | — | 40-60 | 60-80 | — | 10 | — | 60 | 30 | 20 |
| Sugar beet | 20-30 | 60-80 | 60-80 | 60-80 | 15 | 15 | — | 20 | 30 | 30 |
| Corn for grain | — | 60-80 | 60-80 | 60-80 | — | 20 | — | 30 | 40 | 30 |
| Spring cereals | — | 40-60 | 60-90 | 60-90 | — | 10 | — | — | — | — |
Liming
Liming of acidic soils in the northwest and north of the Central Chernozem Zone mandatory precedes fertilizer application. Lime doses are determined by the value of hydrolytic acidity. As a rule, liming is applied at hydrolytic acidity more than 1.8 mg-eq/100 g soil and degree of base saturation more than 93%. Simplified, the lime dose per 1 ha in tonnes is numerically equal to one and a half times the hydrolytic acidity in mg-eq/100 g soil. The actual dose of lime materials is determined taking into account the content of calcium carbonate, moisture, and ballast impurities.
In the rotation, liming is planned on fields going under sugar beet, winter wheat, clover, and sainfoin. Lime is applied before stubble disking, and mineral fertilizers — before fall plowing. Repeated liming is performed after 5-7 years.
System of Water Regime Regulation and Erosion Protection
Measures for regulating the water regime include:
- soil-water protection organization of the land territory with the introduction of special soil-protective rotations;
- grassing of heavily eroded areas;
- use of strip and contour farming on territory with complex relief;
- anti-erosion soil tillage;
- moisture-saving technology of crop cultivation;
- field-protective and soil-protective afforestation;
- hydraulic engineering structures for regulating meltwater and rainwater runoff;
- irrigation;
- application of fertilizers.
Soil-water protection organization of the land territory provides for an optimal ratio of the main agricultural lands. It is based on systems of soil-protective field, fodder rotations, and meadow pasture rotations, a system of forest-melioration measures and hydraulic structures, and rational placement of production facilities and the road network.
On slopes of 1-2°, plowing, sowing, and inter-row treatments are carried out across the slope; on slopes of 2-3° — plowing across the slope, and once every 3-4 years — soil deepening to 30-32 cm. Fall plowing is carried out with pitting, and sowing and inter-row treatment — across the slope. On winter crops — slotting. On erosion-hazardous and eroded slopes of 3-5°, non-moldboard loosening to different depths and combined treatments are used. Slotting, banking of fall plowing, making micro-irregularities, and drainage furrows are effective. During pre-sowing soil treatment and sowing — spring slotting with slot cutters-mole drains SHCHN-2-140 and cultivation across the slope.
Forest-melioration measures are an important component of the anti-erosion complex in the Central Chernozem Zone. By purpose, forest protective plantations are divided into:
- field-protective (windbreak);
- water-regulating;
- near-gully;
- near-ravine;
- gully and ravine;
- massive (clump);
- greening;
- special plantings near water bodies, forest crops on dumps of mineral mining.
Protective forest plantations are placed taking into account relief, degree of soil cover erosion, rotations, and field work.
Water-protection forest plantations are created on the banks of water bodies to protect them from destruction and to protect the waters of local runoff. Around ponds, protective forest strips of the near-gully type with a width of 10-20 m are created; they are placed above the high water level, and with steep banks — above the edge of hollows. To regulate surface runoff, forest strips are combined with the simplest hydraulic structures, for example, water-retaining and water-regulating banks, ditches, concrete watercourses, stilling and water-diffusing devices. To stabilize gullies, earth, fascine, concrete, and other structures are used.
The organization of the enterprise territory, if possible, should be contour, contour-strip, or contour-meliorative.
Crop Protection System
Cereal crops in the Central Chernozem Zone are damaged by the harmful turtle bug, grain beetle, flea beetles, aphids, thrips, leaf beetle, and other pests. The most common diseases include smuts, rusts, root rots, and powdery mildew.
Sugar beet is damaged by wireworm, false wireworm, caterpillars of cutworms, beet weevil, flea beetles, and aphid. Among diseases — root rot and downy mildew. The main pests of sunflower include wireworm, false wireworm, caterpillars of various cutworms, and meadow moth. Among diseases — white and gray rots and downy mildew (peronosporosis).
Vegetable crops are susceptible to damage by crucifer flea beetles, gamma cutworms, cabbage and turnip white butterflies, and cabbage moths. Among diseases — late blight, macrosporosis, black bacterial spot, mosaic, various rots, etc.
The plant protection system provides for:
- observance of correct, scientifically based alternation of crops in rotation;
- application of effective methods of main, pre-sowing, inter-row, and post-harvest soil tillage;
- observance of crop cultivation technology;
- application of eradicative biological and chemical plant protection agents;
- high quality of seed material, free from weed seeds, pathogens, and pests;
- carrying out preventive measures.
Integrated application of plant protection measures ensures maximum effect.
References
- Bazdyrev G. I., Loshakov V. G., Puponin A. I. et al. (2000). Agriculture. Textbook for universities. Moscow: Kolos Publishing House.
- Niklyaev V. S. (2000). Fundamentals of Agricultural Production Technology. Agriculture and Crop Production. Moscow: Bylina.
