How the choice of eggplant variety determines your result

1.1. Eggplant — a "native of the tropics"

The homeland of the eggplant is the hot and humid regions of India and Southeast Asia (Rubatzky & Yamaguchi, 1997). It was there that it developed as a perennial plant. This means that our familiar annual garden eggplant still requires conditions as close as possible to its native tropics. It is very heat-loving and, unlike its relatives—tomatoes and peppers—it reacts much more sharply to stressful factors. Cool weather, sharp temperature fluctuations, or a lack of moisture can be fatal for it (Autko et al., 2012). Therefore, a variety adapted to your climate is not a whim but a necessity.

1.2. The variety dictates the rules of the game: from size to ripening

Choosing a variety is the foundation on which all your agricultural practices are built. It determines:

• Maturity dates: In regions with short summers (for example, in central Russia), varieties with late maturity (over 130-140 days) simply will not have time to produce a harvest. Choosing an early- or mid-season variety becomes a critical success factor (Kasynkina & Kudin, 2018).
• Resistance to diseases and pests: Modern hybrids often carry genes for resistance to tobacco mosaic virus, Colorado potato beetle, and other problems. This significantly simplifies care and reduces the number of treatments, which is especially important for those striving for ecological farming.
• Taste and culinary purpose: There are varieties with tender flesh, ideal for frying. There are those with dense flesh, suitable for baking and making caviar. And there are those with thin skins, which are good in salads. By choosing the wrong variety, you risk getting a dish that doesn't taste as you expected.
• Shape and size: Varieties with large fruits (up to 1 kg or more) require more powerful nutrition and, as a rule, have later maturity dates. At the same time, they produce a small number of fruits. Small-fruited varieties, on the contrary, are often more productive (Swiader, 1992). The choice depends on your goals.

1.3. A practical example: a mistake in choosing a variety

Imagine a gardener in Siberia buys seeds of a large-fruited southern variety that they saw in a picture. They sow, grow seedlings, care for them, water them, but by autumn their bushes are covered in purple flowers, and only a couple of small, unripe fruits are desperately trying to gain mass. The harvest is lost, and the year is wasted. This story is a classic example of how ignoring agro-climatic features and varietal characteristics negates all efforts. A good variety does not guarantee a harvest without good care, but a bad variety guarantees its absence no matter the care.

Thus, choosing a variety for eggplant is the first and most important step. It is a choice of your climate, your goals, and your capabilities. It is insurance against disappointment and the key to a bountiful and tasty harvest. In the following chapters, we will break down how to avoid mistakes in this choice and find your own ideal variety.

2.1. Botanical classification: one species—many faces

Almost all the eggplants we know belong to one species—Solanum melongena L. In the wild, its closest relatives (Solanum incanum, Solanum aethiopicum) are usually thorny shrubs with small and often bitter fruits (Rubatzky & Yamaguchi, 1997). Thanks to centuries of breeding, especially in India, China, and Japan, people have transformed this thorny plant into the cultivated diversity we see today.

Within the species Solanum melongena, several botanical varieties are distinguished, which essentially gave rise to the main groups of varieties based on fruit shape (Swiader, 1992):

• var. esculentum (Edible): This is the most common group, which includes varieties with large, pear-shaped, cylindrical, or egg-shaped fruits. They form the basis of our gardening.
• var. serpentinum (Serpentine): A distinctive feature of this group is long, thin, snake-like fruits, often reaching 40-50 cm in length. These are traditional Asian eggplants, valued for their tender flesh and lack of bitterness.
• var. depressum (Low): This group includes varieties with dwarf growth and small, often rounded fruits. They are good for growing in pots, on balconies, and as ornamental plants.

2.2. Morphological classification: color, shape, size

This classification is most understandable to gardeners, as it is based on the external characteristics of the fruit.

By color:

• Classic purple: The most common group. Includes varieties with fruits ranging from light lilac to almost black.
• White: The fruits have a milky white, cream, or ivory color. They often have a mushroom-like taste and a denser texture, and are less bitter.
• Green: Fruit color varies from light green to emerald. The flesh of such eggplants is usually tender and practically without bitterness.
• Red, orange, yellow: Exotic colors for our latitudes. These eggplants contain a large amount of carotenoids. Their flesh can be dense or, conversely, very tender.
• Striped: Fruits with a contrasting pattern of purple and white stripes. They look very decorative and often have thin skin.

By shape:

• Pear-shaped: The classic shape. Characteristic of most domestic and European varieties. Fruits can be large (300-500 g) and very large (up to 1 kg).
• Cylindrical: Elongated fruits resembling a cucumber. This is the most numerous group in Asian breeding. They are convenient to slice into rounds or cubes.
• Oval and spherical: Compact fruits, often medium-sized. These include some old varieties ('Solyaris') and modern hybrids.
• Teardrop-shaped (or "cobalt"): Small fruits with a pointed tip. Often used for whole-fruit canning.
• Serpentine: Long (up to 50 cm), thin (2-3 cm in diameter) fruits. Characteristic of Asian varieties.

By size:

Fruit size is an important varietal trait.

• Large-fruited: Fruit weight exceeds 500-600 g. These are, as a rule, late-maturing varieties with a small number of fruits per bush (Swiader, 1992).
• Medium-fruited: Fruit weight 200-500 g. The golden mean, most popular among gardeners. Yield and maturity dates are balanced.
• Small-fruited: Fruit weight less than 200 g. They are distinguished by high yield and early maturity. These include many Asian varieties and cherry eggplants.

2.3. Biological and economic classification

This classification is most important for practical gardening, as it determines the cultivation strategy.

By maturity period:

This is the main criterion for choosing a variety in any climate zone. The terms are counted from the emergence of full shoots to the technical maturity of the fruits (Tarakanov & Mukhin, 2003; Kasynkina & Kudin, 2018).

• Ultra-early: 70-85 days. Recommended for regions with very short summers (northern areas).
• Early-ripening: 85-110 days. Ideal for the middle zone and areas with a temperate climate. They manage to produce most of the harvest before the onset of cold weather.
• Mid-ripening: 115-130 days. Optimal for southern regions. In the middle zone, they can be grown only through seedlings in greenhouses or during very warm summers.
• Late-ripening: 130-150 days or more. Grown exclusively in the subtropics and in heated greenhouses. They require a long growing season.

By type of use (purpose):

• Universal: The fruits are suitable for frying, baking, and canning. The taste is balanced, the flesh is of medium density.
• For frying and baking: Varieties with tender, oily flesh and thin skin. During heat treatment, they quickly soften and acquire a creamy taste.
• For making caviar: Varieties with a small number of seeds and dense but not coarse flesh. After baking, the flesh separates well from the skin.
• For long-term storage: Usually these are varieties with dense skin and flesh. With proper storage, the fruits can last up to 2-3 weeks (Swiader, 1992).
• For whole-fruit canning: Varieties with small, teardrop-shaped or cylindrical fruits.

2.4. Variety types and groups

In world breeding, certain groups of varieties have emerged, united by common origin, morphology, and purpose.

• European (Western) variety types: Large, pear-shaped or oval fruits of classic dark purple color. The flesh is dense, often with a slight bitterness. Leading producers are the Netherlands and France. Examples: 'Black Beauty', 'Dusky' (Kemble, 2022).
• Asian (Eastern) variety types: Very diverse. These are long, cylindrical fruits (Japanese type) or large, rounded fruits (Chinese and Indian types). The color range is wide—from white to purple and green. They are distinguished by tender flesh, thin skin, and lack of bitterness. Examples: 'Long Tom', 'Ping Tung', 'Ichiban' (Swiader, 1992).
• Domestic varieties (from Russia, Ukraine, Belarus): These are the result of work by breeders from Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus. They are well adapted to the continental climate, most of them are mid- and early-ripening. They are characterized by a variety of shapes and colors, but the most popular are purple cylindrical and pear-shaped fruits. Examples: 'Almaz', 'Vakula', 'Bagira' (Autko et al., 2012; Kasynkina & Kudin, 2018).

2.5. Varieties and hybrids (F1): what is the difference?

On seed packets, you will often see the F1 designation. This is not just a marketing ploy, but fundamentally different categories you need to know about.

• Varieties: These are the result of many years of breeding. Their main advantage is the ability to pass on their traits to offspring. Seeds collected from a variety plant will produce offspring with similar characteristics. However, varieties are often less uniform and less productive than hybrids.
• Hybrids (F1): These are offspring from crossing two specially selected parent lines. The main advantages of hybrids:
• Heterosis ("hybrid vigor"): Hybrids are more productive, hardier, and earlier maturing than their parents.
• Uniformity: All fruits on the plants are approximately the same size, shape, and color.
• Resistance: Modern hybrids often have genetic resistance to a range of diseases (verticillium wilt, fusarium wilt, tobacco mosaic).
• Uniformity: Plants in a row develop almost identically.

Important! Collecting seeds from F1 hybrids is pointless. They do not retain parental traits and produce highly segregating offspring (Tarakanov & Mukhin, 2003). If you want to collect your own seeds, choose varieties, not hybrids.

Step 1. Assess your climatic conditions

This is the most important and decisive criterion. As we have already found out, eggplant is a heat-loving crop, and it is the climate that dictates the choice of variety based on early maturity.

• Determine your region. If you live in southern regions (Krasnodar Krai, Crimea, Rostov region, Mediterranean countries, the southern US), you have the choice of almost all varieties and hybrids. Your task is to find the one that best suits your taste preferences and goals.

• Short summers and cool climates. For the middle zone, Siberia, the Urals, the North-West of Russia, Northern European countries, and Canada, the factor of early maturity becomes key. Here you need to choose only ultra-early (70-85 days) and early (85-110 days) varieties and hybrids. This guarantees that the plants will have time to form a harvest before the onset of autumn cold (Kasynkina & Kudin, 2018; Tarakanov & Mukhin, 2003).

• Protected ground conditions. If you plan to grow eggplants in heated greenhouses, there are practically no restrictions on maturity dates. In unheated greenhouses and hotbeds, the maturity period should be no more than 110-120 days.

Step 2. Determine your goals and culinary preferences

Ask yourself: "What do I want to get from the eggplant?" This will determine the choice of variety by purpose.

• For everyday use: If you plan to fry and bake eggplants, choose varieties with tender, oily flesh and thin skin, with a small number of seeds (for example, Asian varieties or modern hybrids like 'Bibo F1').
• For "caviar": Choose varieties with dense flesh and strong skin that hold their shape well when baked. They are easy to peel and yield a thick, flavorful caviar.
• For canning and winter preserves: Look for varieties that are suitable for whole-fruit canning. These are usually small-fruited varieties with a high dry matter content (Swiader, 1992).
• For experimenting and variety: Don't be afraid to experiment with varieties of different colors and shapes! White varieties ('Swan') have a mushroom-like taste, green varieties ('Zelenenkiy') have tender flesh, and striped varieties are very decorative and often surprisingly tasty.

Step 3. Consider the biological characteristics of the variety

To guarantee success, pay attention to the following characteristics of the variety indicated on the packaging or in the description:

1. Plant height and bush type:

• Tall (indeterminate): They need support and regular shaping, are often less productive per unit area, but produce large fruits. Suitable for greenhouses and fertile soils (Autko et al., 2012).
• Medium-sized (semi-determinate): The most common group. Their height is usually 60-120 cm. They require moderate shaping.
• Low-growing (determinate): Ideal for small plots, for growing in open ground without support, for balconies and containers. They are convenient to cover from the cold.

2. Disease resistance: If diseases such as fusarium wilt, verticillium wilt, or mosaic are common in your region, or if you plan to grow eggplants in the same place without crop rotation, give preference to F1 hybrids with resistance to these diseases. This will save you effort and money on protective treatments.

3. Yield: The yield of a variety is the number of marketable fruits per unit area. The largest-fruited variety is not always the most productive. For example, small-fruited varieties often produce more fruit by weight than large-fruited ones (Swiader, 1992). Study the variety description on the package.

Step 4. Study recommendations from trusted sources

Do not rely solely on the opinion of the seller in the store or on beautiful advertising. Your best advisors are:

• The State Register of Breeding Achievements (for Russia and CIS countries). It lists varieties and hybrids that have passed trials and are recommended for cultivation in specific regions. This is the "gold standard" for selection.
• Catalogs and reference books of major seed producers. In them, you will find detailed descriptions of varieties and hybrids, indicating disease resistance, bush type, and other important characteristics.
• Reviews from other gardeners in your region. The practical experience of fellow gardeners, especially in similar climatic conditions, is an invaluable source of information. Read thematic forums, chat in local gardening groups.

Step 5. Assess your care capabilities

This step is often overlooked, but it is important for comfortable gardening.

• Time and effort: If you have little time, choose unpretentious, disease-resistant varieties that do not require complex bush shaping (especially determinate or weakly branching ones). Hybrids resistant to diseases will require less intervention.
• Pollination: If you don't have bees or you are growing in a greenhouse, choose varieties that do not require insect pollination, or use self-pollinating hybrids. But this is rare for eggplants; they usually need pollination.
• Plot size: For large areas, you can choose tall varieties with a long fruiting period. For small ones, choose compact, early-ripening varieties.

Step 6. Start with trials on small plots

If you are in doubt, do not buy a lot of seeds of one variety at once. Plant 2-3 plants of several varieties that meet your criteria. During the season, observe them: how they react to the weather, how they tolerate heat or cold, what their taste is like, how productive they are. This will allow you to make a final choice by the next season, based on personal experience rather than outside advice. This method is called "variety testing" and is the basis for any experienced gardener.

Example of applying the algorithm

Situation: A gardener lives in the Moscow region (short, unstable summer). Wants to get an early harvest for making caviar and frying. The plot is small, there is little time for shaping bushes.

Applying the algorithm:

1. Climate: Need ultra-early or early-ripening varieties (70-110 days).

2. Goal: Universal varieties for frying and caviar.

3. Biology: Choose medium-sized or low-growing varieties to avoid spending time on complex shaping. Pay attention to disease resistance.

4. Recommendations: Look in the State Register or catalogs for early-ripening hybrids or varieties recommended for the Central region.

5. Care: Choose unpretentious varieties, such as 'Almaz' (does not require pruning) or 'Bagira F1' (resistant to diseases).

6. Trial: This season, plant several early-ripening varieties ('Almaz', 'Vakula', 'Albatros') and observe them.

4.1. Russia and the CIS Countries

Main page: Overview of Russian eggplant varieties

When it comes to eggplants, most people immediately imagine dark purple, glossy fruits of the classic shape. However, in Russia, a country with an enormous diversity of climatic zones, breeders have created a unique gene pool of this crop. Domestic varieties and hybrids are not just “little blue ones” for the market; they are the result of decades of work aimed at adapting the plant to a wide variety of conditions: from the hot steppes of Krasnodar Krai to the short Siberian summer.

4.2. Europe

In European countries, especially in the south (Italy, Spain, Greece), eggplant breeding has long traditions. European varieties and hybrids are often focused on high productivity, fruit uniformity, and suitability for long-term storage and transportation.

Main seed producers:

• Dutch companies (Bejo, Enza Zaden, Rijk Zwaan, Nunhems) — leaders in creating hybrids with high disease resistance.
• French, Italian companies (Vilmorin, Gautier).

Popular varieties and hybrids:

• 'Black Beauty' (Kemble, 2022; Swiader, 1992): Classic European variety. Late-ripening (130 days and more). The bush is vigorous, tall. The fruits are pear-shaped, dark purple, large (weighing 500-700 g). The flesh is white, dense, with a slight bitterness.
• 'Dusky' (Swiader, 1992; Kemble, 2022): Early-ripening variety from the USA (but also popular in Europe). The bush is compact, 50-60 cm tall. The fruits are pear-shaped, dark purple, weighing 200-300 g. The flesh is white, tender. Suitable for open ground, tolerates cool conditions well.
• 'Bonica F1': Early-ripening hybrid from Bejo. The plant is medium-sized. The fruits are cylindrical, dark purple, very uniform, weighing 300-400 g. Distinguished by high yield and disease resistance.
• 'Toga F1': Hybrid from Enza Zaden. Early-ripening (about 70 days from planting seedlings). The plant is medium-sized. The fruits are pear-shaped, dark purple, glossy, weighing 300-350 g. The flesh is white, dense. Ideal for open ground and greenhouses.
• 'Moneymaker' (Kemble, 2022): Mid-early variety from the Netherlands. The bush is tall, requires shaping. The fruits are pear-shaped, dark purple, weighing 200-250 g.
• 'Long Purple': An old European variety with long (up to 25 cm), cylindrical fruits of dark purple color. The flesh is white, tender.

Italian varieties:

• 'Violetta di Firenze': A variety with an Italian accent. The plant is tall. The fruits are very large, long, up to 30 cm, purple. Valued for tender flesh and sweetish taste.
• 'Rossa di Rotonda': Large, rounded fruits of pink-red color. They have a sweetish taste and are used for baking.

4.3. North America (USA, Canada)

In North America, eggplants are grown both on an industrial scale (especially in California and Florida) and in home gardens. American breeders have created many varieties adapted to different climatic zones.

Features of American breeding:

• Varieties for long-term storage and transportation.
• High resistance to diseases, especially verticillium wilt and fusarium wilt.
• Adaptation to hot and dry climates.

Popular varieties and hybrids:

• 'Black Beauty' (Swiader, 1992): Classic American variety, described above.
• 'Epic' (Kemble, 2022): Early-ripening variety from Burpee. The bush is medium-sized, 60-70 cm tall. The fruits are pear-shaped, dark purple, weighing 200-300 g. The flesh is white, dense. Distinguished by high yield.
• 'Dusky' (Swiader, 1992): Early-ripening variety, very popular in the USA. Adapted to open ground. The fruits are pear-shaped, weighing 200-250 g.
• 'Hansel F1' and 'Gretel F1': Popular hybrids from Johnny's Selected Seeds. 'Hansel' has long, thin purple fruits, 'Gretel' has white ones. Valued for their delicate taste and high yield.
• 'Ping Tung' (Swiader, 1992): An Asian variety that has become popular in the USA. The plant is tall. The fruits are long (up to 30 cm), thin, purple. The flesh is white, tender, without bitterness. Very productive.
• 'Nadia F1': A modern hybrid from Bejo. Early-ripening, resistant to mosaic virus. The fruits are pear-shaped, dark purple, very large (up to 1 kg).

4.4. Asia

Asia is the homeland of the eggplant, and here is the greatest diversity of species and varieties. Breeding in China, Japan, India, Thailand, and other countries is focused on creating varieties with thin skin, tender flesh, and high yield.

Asian types of eggplants:

• Japanese type: Long (up to 40 cm), thin, cylindrical fruits of dark purple color. The flesh is white, very tender, without bitterness.
• Chinese type: Large, rounded or pear-shaped fruits of various colors (purple, green, white, striped). The flesh is tender, often sweetish.
• Indian type: Small fruits, often rounded, may be purple, green, or white. The flesh is dense, with a slight bitterness that disappears after cooking.
• Thai type: Very small, round eggplants of green or white color. Used in curries and salads.

Popular varieties and hybrids:

• 'Long Tom' (Swiader, 1992): Classic Japanese variety. The fruits are long (up to 30 cm), thin, dark purple. The flesh is tender, without bitterness.
• 'Ichiban' (Swiader, 1992): Another popular Japanese variety. The fruits are long, up to 25 cm, purple. Very early.
• 'Ping Tung' (Swiader, 1992): Taiwanese variety. Tall, productive. The fruits are long, up to 30 cm, purple. The flesh is tender, without bitterness.
• 'Thai Green' and 'Thai White': Small, round eggplants of green and white color. Used in curries.
• 'Striped' (Marbled): Chinese variety with purple-white striped fruits. Decorative and tasty.
• 'Baby Eggplant' (or 'Black Pearl'): A group of compact varieties with very small fruits (50-80 g). Ideal for whole-fruit canning and growing in pots.

4.5. South America, Africa, Australia

In these regions, the range of eggplants is often shaped by local climatic conditions and culinary traditions.

• South America (Brazil, Argentina): Both European and local varieties are popular here. In Brazil, for example, varieties with round fruits used in salads are highly valued (e.g., 'Bianco').
• Africa (Egypt, Nigeria): In countries with hot climates, varieties with long, thin fruits that tolerate drought well are popular. Local varieties often have a bitter taste.
• Australia: Here, varieties adapted to hot and dry climates are actively used. Both European varieties ('Black Beauty') and Asian ones ('Ping Tung') are popular. Local breeders are creating varieties that are resistant to diseases and do not require abundant watering (e.g., 'Luscious').

Major global seed producers and brands

• Bejo (Netherlands): One of the leaders in vegetable seed production. Bejo hybrids are characterized by high yield and disease resistance.
• Enza Zaden (Netherlands): Known for its hybrids with high marketable qualities.
• Rijk Zwaan (Netherlands): Offers a wide range of hybrids for open and protected ground.
• Nunhems (Netherlands, part of Bayer): Specializes in hybrids for industrial production.
• Johnny's Selected Seeds (USA): Offers varieties and hybrids for organic and amateur gardening.
• Vilmorin (France): Known for its varieties for the professional and amateur market.
• Seminis (USA, part of Bayer): A global leader in vegetable seed production.
• Clause (France): A major seed producer for southern regions.

Mistake 1: Ignoring climatic conditions and maturity dates

This is the most common and most serious mistake. Eggplant is a heat-loving crop and demanding of the sum of active temperatures (Autko et al., 2012). Late-ripening varieties (over 130 days) in regions with short summers simply do not have time to produce a harvest.

How to avoid: Always pay attention to the maturity dates indicated on the package. For the middle zone, Siberia, the Urals, and the North-West, choose only ultra-early (70-85 days) and early (85-110 days) varieties and hybrids. If in doubt, take the earliest ones. Remember: an eggplant that did not have time to ripen before the cold weather is a lost season.

Mistake 2: Choosing the "wrong" variety for the purpose

You bought a variety with large, beautiful fruits, grew a harvest, but the eggplants turned out bitter, with tough skin, or too watery for frying. The fact is that different varieties have different culinary purposes.

How to avoid: Before buying, determine what you need eggplants for:

• For frying and baking, choose varieties with tender, oily flesh and thin skin (many Asian varieties or modern hybrids, e.g., 'Bibo F1', 'Swan').
• For caviar, choose varieties with dense flesh and strong skin (classic varieties like 'Black Beauty', 'Almaz').
• For canning, choose varieties with small, dense fruits (Swiader, 1992).

Mistake 3: Incorrect choice between a variety and a hybrid (F1)

Many gardeners do not see the difference between a variety and a hybrid, but it is fundamental. Varieties produce stable offspring but often yield to hybrids in productivity and resistance. F1 hybrids provide maximum yield and high disease resistance, but seeds cannot be collected from them—they do not retain parental traits (Tarakanov & Mukhin, 2003).

How to avoid:

• If you want to collect your own seeds, choose varieties (e.g., 'Almaz', 'Black Beauty').
• If you need maximum yield, uniform fruits, and disease resistance, choose F1 hybrids (e.g., 'Bagira F1', 'Toga F1', 'Bonica F1').

Mistake 4: Choosing based on the picture, not the characteristics

A beautiful picture on a seed packet is advertising, not a guide to action. Very often, the package shows a fruit that does not correspond to the actual variety in terms of color, shape, or size. This is especially true for little-known producers.

How to avoid: Study the text description. Look for information about the variety in the State Register, catalogs of well-known producers, and on specialized forums. Trust facts, not pictures.

Mistake 5: Saving money on seeds

Buying cheap seeds of unknown origin is a lottery. Often such seeds have low germination, may be infected with diseases, and may not correspond to the declared variety. As a result, you lose not only money but also time and harvest.

How to avoid: Buy seeds only from trusted producers and in specialized stores. Choose well-known brands: Bejo, Enza Zaden, Rijk Zwaan, Johnny's Selected Seeds, "Gavrish", "Aelita", "SeDeK", and others.

Mistake 6: Ignoring care and shaping requirements

Tall varieties (indeterminate) require staking to supports and regular pruning (Autko et al., 2012). If you are not ready to spend time shaping the bush, it is better to choose a low-growing or medium-sized variety.

How to avoid: Read the variety description carefully. If you do not want to bother with staking and pruning, choose varieties with a compact bush ('Almaz', 'Vakula'—they require minimal shaping) or determinate varieties ('Dwarf', 'Solyaris').

Mistake 7: Refusing variety trials

Many gardeners buy one variety for the whole season, and if it does not meet expectations, they become disappointed in the crop as a whole. But you don't know which variety is suitable for your particular plot and your tastes!

How to avoid: In the first season, plant 2-3 plants of different varieties that meet your criteria for early maturity and purpose. Compare them by taste, yield, and disease resistance. By the next season, you will already know what to focus on.

Mistake 8: Not considering the quality of the seed material

Even the best variety will not yield a harvest if you plant old, low-quality seeds. Eggplants, unlike tomatoes, lose germination faster (the optimal seed storage period is 2-3 years) (Tarakanov & Mukhin, 2003).

How to avoid: Buy fresh seeds (current or last year's). Pay attention to the date on the package. If you are using your own seeds, check them for germination before sowing.