Harvesting and storing

What is technical maturity?

Technical maturity is the stage of fruit development when it has reached the maximum size characteristic of the variety but has not yet acquired its final colour (Autko et al., 2012). At this point, pepper fruits:

• have a firm, elastic wall;
• have reached the varietal size;
• contain sufficient vitamins and nutrients (Kasynkina and Kudin, 2018).

For sweet peppers, technical maturity occurs when the fruit becomes green, creamy, or purple depending on the variety. For hot peppers, technical maturity is determined by the colour typical of the variety, but the seeds inside the fruit are not yet fully ripe (Tarakanov and Mukhin, 2003).

Important note: technical maturity differs between sweet and hot peppers. In sweet peppers, fruits at technical maturity are green; in hot peppers, they are often already red, but the seeds are still not fully formed (Panteleev, 1986).

What is biological maturity?

Biological maturity is the complete ripening of the fruit, when:

• the seeds inside are fully developed and ready for sowing;
• the fruit has acquired its final colour (red, orange, yellow);
• the fruit walls have become softer;
• sugar content has reached its maximum (Gil and Tudela, 2012).

For sweet peppers, biological maturity occurs 15–20 days after technical maturity (Panteleev, 1986). During this period, the fruits are sweeter, more aromatic, and contain significantly more vitamins – for example, vitamin C in red fruits is twice as high as in green ones, and carotene is 60 times higher (Tarakanov and Mukhin, 2003).

How to determine the stage of maturity?

Technical maturity of sweet peppers can be identified by a characteristic slight cracking sound of the fruit walls when pressed with fingers (Autko et al., 2012). However, the most reliable signs are:

For technical maturity:

• The fruit has reached the variety-specific size
• Colour matches varietal characteristics (green, cream, purple)
• Walls are firm and elastic
• Seeds are just beginning to form

For biological maturity:

• Full colour of the fruit (red, orange, yellow)
• Seeds are fully formed
• Walls become more tender
• Fruit separates more easily from the pedicel

Why should a gardener know about the two types of maturity?

Understanding the difference between technical and biological maturity helps answer the main question: when to harvest to get maximum benefit?

If you are harvesting peppers for long‑term storage or transport – pick the fruits at technical maturity. In this state, they tolerate storage better and ripen indoors (Gil and Tudela, 2012; Welbaum, 2015).

If you want the sweetest, most aromatic, and most vitamin‑rich fruits for immediate consumption – wait for biological maturity. Red sweet peppers contain significantly more sugar and vitamin C (Kasynkina and Kudin, 2018).

Hot peppers: harvesting specifics

For hot peppers, the approach is somewhat different. They are harvested at both technical and biological maturity depending on the purpose:

• For fresh use and sauce making, fruits are often picked at technical maturity (they are juicier)
• For drying and making powder (paprika), fruits are harvested at biological maturity, when they are fully red and seeds are ripe (Bosland and Votava, 2012)

Interestingly, the pungency of pepper is almost independent of the stage of maturity – it develops earlier, although it may increase slightly during ripening (Welbaum, 2015).

Practical recommendations

1. For sweet peppers: harvest fruits at technical maturity (green) if you plan transport or storage. If the pepper will be eaten within a few days – wait for biological maturity (red, orange, or yellow fruits).

2. For hot peppers: for fresh use, fruits at any stage – from technical to biological maturity – are suitable. For drying and processing, harvest fully ripe fruits.

3. Do not over‑ripen fruits on the plant: over‑ripe fruits lose their marketable appearance, and in sweet peppers, taste quality deteriorates (Autko et al., 2012).

Why does this work?

The pepper plant aims to complete its life cycle – to produce viable seeds. When you pick fruits at technical maturity, you are essentially "tricking" the plant: it continues to set new fruits, striving to "complete its mission." If you leave fruits until biological maturity, the plant "considers" its task accomplished and reduces the intensity of flowering and fruit set (Panteleev, 1986).

Thus, regular harvesting of fruits at technical maturity stimulates the plant to bear fruit for a longer period – this is one of the key rules for obtaining maximum yield.

In the next chapter: we will discuss when to pick fruits to stimulate further fruiting, how to harvest properly without injuring the plant, and why preserving the pedicel is so important for storage life.

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Two approaches to harvesting

Experienced gardeners know: pepper is a plant with extended fruiting. Unlike tomatoes or cucumbers, where the harvest often comes in waves, peppers can produce fruits for several months in a row. How you harvest these fruits directly determines whether the plant will continue to bear fruit or "finish its program" ahead of time.

There are two main approaches to harvesting peppers:

First approach: harvesting at technical maturity (green fruits). This method is used to stimulate the plant to set new flowers and ovaries. When you regularly pick fruits without waiting for full ripening, the plant does not receive a "signal" that its main biological task (producing mature seeds) is completed. As a result, it continues to form new flowers and ovaries, extending the fruiting period (Gil and Tudela, 2012; Panteleev, 1986).

Second approach: harvesting at biological maturity (red, yellow, orange fruits). If you leave fruits on the plant until full ripeness, the plant "considers" its mission accomplished – seeds are ripe, so it can reduce flowering and new fruit formation. This leads to a gradual cessation of fruiting (Panteleev, 1986).

How often should you harvest?

The frequency of harvesting depends on the stage of maturity you choose:

• When harvesting at technical maturity, fruits should be picked every 5–7 days (Gil and Tudela, 2012). Regular picking prevents fruits from overgrowing and the plant from switching to "rest mode." Importantly: even if you do not plan to use green fruits immediately, they can be ripened indoors (see Chapter 4).
• When harvesting at biological maturity, the interval can be longer – 7–10 days – but you need to watch carefully so that fruits do not over‑ripen on the plant. Over‑ripe fruits lose firmness, become soft, and their seeds may start germinating inside the fruit, reducing nutritional value (Bosland and Votava, 2012).

Practical rule: the more often you pick fruits (at any stage of maturity), the longer the plant will bear fruit. Under greenhouse conditions with regular harvesting, fruiting can last up to 7 months (Autko et al., 2012).

Effect of harvest timing on yield

Research shows that systematic harvesting of fruits at technical maturity can increase total pepper yield by 20–30% compared to harvesting only biologically ripe fruits (Autko et al., 2012). This is explained by:

• The plant does not spend extra resources on "ripening" fruits on the bush;
• Nutrients are freed up for new ovaries;
• The number of flowers and ovaries on the plant increases.

On a single pepper plant, 30 to 100 or more flowers form per season. However, not all of them turn into fruits – many drop off due to lack of nutrients or stress conditions. Timely harvesting of already formed fruits reduces competition for nutrients and promotes better fruit set of new ones (Autko et al., 2012).

Harvesting in different climatic zones

Gardeners in temperate climates (with short summers) should remember: if you leave fruits on the plant until full ripening, you may not have time to harvest a significant part of the crop before cold weather arrives. In regions with a short growing season, it is recommended to harvest peppers primarily at technical maturity and ripen the fruits indoors (Kasynkina and Kudin, 2018).

In southern regions with a long warm season, you can afford to wait for biological maturity of some fruits, especially if you grow varieties with particularly valuable taste qualities that are fully revealed only upon full ripening (Welbaum, 2015).

Important: before the onset of autumn frosts, all fruits must be harvested, even the smallest and most immature. Frosts damage not only the fruits themselves but also the plant as a whole, which can lead to total crop loss (Gil and Tudela, 2012; Panteleev, 1986).

Specifics for sweet and hot peppers

For sweet peppers, harvesting at technical maturity is standard practice to extend fruiting. However, if you grow sweet pepper for particularly sweet, aromatic fruits (e.g., for salads or stuffing), it makes sense to leave a few fruits on each plant until biological maturity. This will allow you to enjoy the full flavour, but remember: fruiting on that plant will slow down (Gil and Tudela, 2012).

For hot peppers, the rules are slightly different. Hot varieties are often harvested at biological maturity because they are used for drying or making seasonings. But here too, the same principle applies: if you pick fruits at technical maturity (green), the plant will bear fruit longer. Hot peppers can be picked green for pickling or marinating, while leaving some fruits to fully ripen for drying and powder (Tarakanov and Mukhin, 2003; Bosland and Votava, 2012).

Practical recommendations

1. For maximum yield, harvest pepper at technical maturity every 5–7 days. This stimulates the plant to set new fruits.

2. For sweet, aromatic fruits, leave some fruits until biological maturity, but remember: this will reduce overall yield and shorten the fruiting period.

3. Before frost, harvest all fruits without exception, even the smallest and most immature – they will ripen indoors.

4. Combine approaches: on the same plant, you can harvest some fruits at technical maturity and leave others for biological maturity. This allows you to both extend fruiting and obtain a few fully ripe fruits for special purposes.

Why this works: a physiological perspective

The pepper plant, like many other fruit crops, aims to complete its life cycle by producing seeds. The ripening process of fruits, including the accumulation of sugars, carotenoids, and other substances, proceeds in parallel with seed maturation. When seeds are fully mature, the plant receives a hormonal signal (involving ethylene and other regulators) that reduces flowering and new ovary formation (Rêgo et al., 2016). Regular harvesting of fruits at an earlier stage interrupts this signal, and the plant "does not know" that its mission is accomplished, so it continues to flower and set new fruits.

In the next chapter: we will cover how to properly cut fruits to avoid injuring the plant, why preserving the pedicel is critical for storage life, and which tools are best to use.

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Why peppers should not be "pulled off"

Unlike tomatoes, which have a special abscission zone on the pedicel that allows the fruit to detach easily when ripe, peppers lack such a zone (Bosland and Votava, 2012; Welbaum, 2015). The pepper fruit is firmly attached to the plant, and if you try to simply tear or break it off, you will inevitably:

• damage the tissues of the pedicel and its attachment point to the stem;
• may crack or even break the fragile branch;
• leave an open wound through which pathogens can enter both the plant and the fruit (Panteleev, 1986; Gil and Tudela, 2012).

This is especially relevant for sweet peppers with thick, fleshy walls – such fruits are heavier, and trying to pull them off can easily damage the entire branch. Pepper branches are very brittle, and careless harvesting can break whole shoots with immature fruits (Autko et al., 2012).

The right tool and cutting technique

The only correct way to harvest peppers is cutting with a sharp tool. Use:

• a sharp knife (preferably with a thin blade);
• pruners or garden shears;
• special harvest scissors (with short blades).

Cutting rules:

1. Cut the fruit with a portion of the pedicel. The optimal length of the remaining pedicel is 2–3 cm (Gil and Tudela, 2012; Panteleev, 1986). The pedicel serves as a natural barrier that prevents microorganisms from entering the fruit and slows down moisture evaporation. Fruits cut "flush" (without a pedicel) lose moisture 2–3 times faster and store significantly worse (Bosland and Votava, 2012).

2. Cut carefully without damaging the branch. Hold the fruit with one hand by the pedicel, and with the other make a clean cut with the tool. Try not to touch the stem or other fruits with the blade to avoid spreading infection.

3. Do not break or twist the fruit. Even if the fruit seems "almost coming off," do not give in to temptation – this always injures tissues and shortens storage life.

4. Cut in the morning, during cool hours. Fruits harvested in the morning have higher turgor (firmness), are less damaged, and keep longer. If you pick fruits during the day when they are heated by the sun, their storage life decreases (Gil and Tudela, 2012; Bosland and Votava, 2012).

Why is the pedicel so important?

The pedicel is not just a "stalk." Through it, water and nutrients flowed into the fruit. After cutting, living cells remain in the pedicel tissues, which continue to function for some time and form a protective layer (cork layer) at the cut site. This layer:

• prevents moisture evaporation from the fruit through the cut site;
• acts as a mechanical barrier against fungal and bacterial invasion;
• reduces the respiration rate of the fruit, slowing down ageing processes (Gil and Tudela, 2012; Bosland and Votava, 2012).

Fruits cut without a pedicel lack this natural "seal" – moisture escapes faster, and decay pathogens easily enter through the open wound. This is especially critical for sweet peppers with thick, fleshy walls, which lose moisture very intensively.

How to avoid damaging the plant during mass harvesting

If you have many bushes and harvest regularly (every 5–7 days), it is important to follow several general rules so as not to weaken the plants:

• Cut fruits wearing gloves – especially hot varieties (capsaicin can cause skin and mucous membrane irritation, and if it gets into the eyes, serious burns) (Autko et al., 2012). After working with hot peppers, wash your hands thoroughly with soap.
• Support the branch when cutting heavy fruits – this prevents branches from breaking under the weight of the crop.
• Do not leave "stubs" of pedicels on the bush – they can dry out and become a source of infection. Cut the pedicel at its base, leaving no protruding parts.
• Immediately remove damaged, diseased, or deformed fruits – they are not only unsuitable for storage but can also be a source of disease spread to healthy fruits (Gil and Tudela, 2012).

Specifics for sweet and hot peppers

Sweet pepper: its fruits are large, with thick walls and juicy flesh. They are heavier than hot peppers, so supporting the branch is especially important when cutting. Sweet peppers are often harvested at technical maturity (green), and when cutting, a pedicel of 1–2 cm is left. This is the standard for transport and storage (Welbaum, 2015).

Hot pepper: fruits are smaller and lighter, but you need to harvest just as many, if not more – hot varieties are often used fresh, dried, or pickled. When cutting hot peppers, it is also important to leave the pedicel, especially if you plan to dry the fruits – the pedicel helps preserve the integrity of the fruit and slows down the loss of aroma (Bosland and Votava, 2012).

What to do if the fruit comes off without the pedicel?

This can happen, especially with novice gardeners. If the fruit comes off "with flesh" (without a pedicel), it should be used first – for immediate consumption, processing, or drying. It is not recommended to store such fruits for a long time – they quickly lose moisture and rot. It is best to eat or process them within 1–2 days.

Why this works: a physiological perspective

Cutting the fruit with a portion of the pedicel leaves living tissues capable of forming a protective layer (periderm). Suberin and lignin – substances that make the tissue waterproof and resistant to microbial penetration – are deposited in this layer. If the fruit is torn or broken off, the tissues tear unevenly, the protective layer does not form, and microbes easily enter inside. In addition, preserving the pedicel reduces the respiration rate of the fruit, because intense water evaporation does not occur through it, and gas exchange slows down. This is similar to how a wound heals on potato skin – if it is not damaged, it "closes" faster and protects internal tissues (Bosland and Votava, 2012; Rêgo et al., 2016).

In the next chapter: we will discuss post‑harvest ripening – which fruits are capable of ripening after picking, under what conditions this happens faster and better, and why not all peppers "finish" indoors.

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What is postharvest ripening and why is it needed

Postharvest ripening is the process of bringing fruits to biological (consumer) maturity after they have been removed from the plant (Autko et al., 2012). Unlike tomatoes, where this process proceeds actively and predictably, with peppers the situation is more complex – not all varieties and not all stages are suitable for postharvest ripening.

The goal of postharvest ripening is to obtain fruits with full flavour, aroma, colour, and maximum vitamin content. Sweet peppers that ripen after picking become sweeter, more aromatic, and their vitamin C and carotenoid content increases (Gil and Tudela, 2012; Rêgo et al., 2016).

Which fruits are capable of ripening after harvest?

Not all peppers ripen equally well after picking. The ability to ripen depends on the species, variety, and, most importantly, on the stage of fruit development at the time of harvest.

Fruits that have reached technical maturity – ripen well. Technical maturity is when the fruit already has the size and shape characteristic of the variety but has not yet acquired its final colour (Panteleev, 1986). For sweet peppers, these are green, cream, or purple fruits; for hot peppers, they are often already red but seeds are not yet fully mature (Tarakanov and Mukhin, 2003). Such fruits, under proper conditions (temperature 18–24 °C, high humidity), successfully ripen within 10–15 days (Gil and Tudela, 2012; Autko et al., 2012).

Fruits picked at an early stage (underdeveloped) – ripen poorly or not at all. If the fruit was picked before reaching technical maturity (e.g., very small, light green, or even pale), it will most likely not be able to fully ripen – it lacks sufficient reserve nutrients to complete ripening processes. Such fruits may slightly change colour after picking, but taste will not improve, the flesh will remain tough, and seeds will not mature (Gil and Tudela, 2012).

Fruits that have already begun to change colour ("breaker") – ripen the fastest. If the fruit already shows the first signs of colour change (a yellow or red spot), it will ripen indoors very quickly – in 5–7 days, and the quality will be almost the same as fruits that ripened on the plant (Rêgo et al., 2016; Bosland and Votava, 2012).

Important difference: sweet and hot peppers. Sweet peppers harvested at technical maturity ripen quite successfully, although they do not become as sweet as fruits that ripened on the bush. Hot peppers are often ripened after harvest to obtain fully mature seeds (for drying and powder). However, pungency (capsaicin content) does not increase significantly during postharvest ripening – it is already determined on the plant (Bosland and Votava, 2012; Welbaum, 2015).

Conditions for postharvest ripening: temperature, humidity, air exchange

For successful postharvest ripening, certain conditions must be created. Here are the main parameters:

Temperature

The optimal temperature for postharvest ripening of peppers is 18–24 °C (Gil and Tudela, 2012; Autko et al., 2012). In this range, fruits change colour fairly quickly, do not dry out, and do not spoil. At lower temperatures (below 15 °C), the process slows down, and below 10 °C fruits may not ripen at all, with an increased risk of disease development (Bosland and Votava, 2012). At higher temperatures (above 25 °C), ripening accelerates, but fruits lose moisture faster, become wilted, and may rot.

Humidity

The optimal relative humidity for postharvest ripening is 85–95% (Gil and Tudela, 2012; Panteleev, 1986). This is a fairly high level, but it must be maintained to prevent fruits from drying out. If humidity is below 80%, fruits begin to lose water, shrivel, and walls become flabby. If humidity rises above 95% with poor ventilation, there is a risk of mould and bacterial rot.

Ventilation and gas exchange

Pepper fruits, like all living organisms, respire – they absorb oxygen and release carbon dioxide, as well as a small amount of ethylene (Rêgo et al., 2016). In a closed room with poor ventilation, the carbon dioxide concentration can rise, which slows ripening. Therefore, during postharvest ripening, it is important to ensure moderate air exchange – do not seal containers with fruits tightly, leave gaps. However, strong drafts should also be avoided – they cause fruits to dry out.

Light

Light is not required for postharvest ripening and can even be harmful. Direct sunlight overheats fruits, accelerates moisture loss, and can cause sunburn. Ripening is best done in a dark or shaded place (e.g., a pantry, cellar, or under a canopy with good ventilation) (Panteleev, 1986; Kasynkina and Kudin, 2018).

How long does postharvest ripening take?

The ripening time depends on the variety, stage of maturity, and temperature:

• Fruits at the "breaker" stage (beginning of colour change) ripen in 5–7 days at 20–22 °C;
• Fruits at technical maturity (green but fully developed) ripen in 10–15 days under the same conditions;
• In a cooler room (about 15 °C), the process may take 3–4 weeks, but the fruits remain firm longer.

It is important to monitor the process: do not allow over‑ripening. As soon as the fruits acquire the characteristic varietal colour (red, orange, yellow) – they should be removed for storage or use. Over‑ripe fruits become soft, lose firmness, and spoil quickly (Bosland and Votava, 2012).

How to organise postharvest ripening at home

For the home gardener, no complex equipment is needed. Here is a simple scheme:

1. Select fruits for ripening. Only healthy, without visible damage, with pedicel, and having reached technical maturity. Damaged, diseased, or very small fruits should be used immediately or processed.

2. Lay the fruits in a single layer in boxes, crates, or on shelves. Do not stack in several layers – this impairs ventilation and can lead to rotting. There should be a small gap between fruits.

3. Place the boxes in a warm, dark, well‑ventilated room (pantry, garage without drafts, utility room). Ideal temperature – 20–22 °C, humidity – 85–90%. If humidity is low, place containers of water nearby or occasionally spray the air (but not the fruits!).

4. Check the fruits periodically. About every 2–3 days, inspect them, remove fruits that have started to rot or shrivel. Turn the fruits to ensure even ripening.

5. Once the fruits have acquired the desired colour – remove them for storage or consumption. Do not allow over‑ripening.

Why do not all peppers ripen equally?

The ability to ripen after harvest is related to the physiological characteristics of the fruit. Pepper is classified as a non‑climacteric fruit – meaning it does not have a pronounced "burst" of respiration and ethylene production during ripening, as in tomatoes or bananas (Rêgo et al., 2016). Therefore, the ripening process of pepper fruits largely depends on their "physiological age" at the time of harvest. If the fruit has already accumulated enough reserve substances (sugars, organic acids, amino acids) by the time of technical maturity, it can use these resources to complete pigment synthesis and sugar accumulation. If the fruit was picked too early, these reserves are insufficient, and postharvest ripening does not occur (Gil and Tudela, 2012).

Dangerous mistakes during postharvest ripening

• Placing fruits next to apples or bananas. These fruits release a lot of ethylene, which can accelerate ageing of pepper fruits, make them too soft, and lead to loss of flavour (Bosland and Votava, 2012).
• Airtight packaging – without oxygen access, fruits "suffocate," begin to ferment and rot (Gil and Tudela, 2012).
• High temperature (above 30 °C) – accelerates ageing processes, causes dehydration, and worsens taste.
• Low humidity (below 70%) – fruits lose turgor, become flabby, and walls become soft and tasteless.

Recommendations for the home gardener

1. For postharvest ripening, select only fruits that have reached technical maturity. Ignore very small and underdeveloped ones.

2. Provide a warm, dark, and humid place. If high humidity cannot be ensured, place fruits in perforated plastic bags – this reduces evaporation.

3. Monitor the process daily (or at least every other day). Remove rotting fruits to prevent them from infecting neighbouring ones.

4. Use ripened fruits within a few days – they do not keep long, as after ripening they begin to lose quality quickly.

In the next chapter: we will move on to storage conditions for fresh fruits – temperature, humidity, ventilation, as well as methods for storing sweet and hot peppers (fresh, drying, freezing).

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Why is pepper so difficult to store?

Pepper is a fruit with high water content and relatively thin skin, especially in sweet varieties. After harvest, it continues to respire, lose moisture through evaporation, and gradually age. Added to this is high sensitivity to low temperatures (chilling injury) and to diseases. This combination makes pepper storage a real challenge for gardeners (Gil and Tudela, 2012; Rêgo et al., 2016).

Key problems during storage:

• Moisture loss – fruits shrivel, lose firmness and marketable appearance;
• Chilling injury – at too low temperatures, dents, spots appear, fruits become soft and quickly rot;
• Development of fungal and bacterial rots – especially at high humidity and poor ventilation;
• Loss of flavour and aroma – due to respiration and irreversible biochemical changes.

Optimal storage temperature

For different types and stages of pepper maturity, the optimal temperature differs. Here are general recommendations based on many years of research:

For sweet peppers (at technical maturity – green):

Optimal temperature – 7–10 °C. At this temperature and high humidity (90–95%), sweet peppers can be stored for 2–3 weeks (Gil and Tudela, 2012; Welbaum, 2015). At lower temperatures (below 7 °C), chilling injury develops: depressed spots appear on the skin, fruits lose gloss, become watery, and then rot (Bosland and Votava, 2012).

For sweet peppers (at biological maturity – red, yellow, orange):

Optimal temperature – 7–10 °C, but such fruits keep for a slightly shorter time – about 1–2 weeks, as they are softer and more sensitive to mechanical damage (Gil and Tudela, 2012).

For hot peppers:

Hot peppers (chili, cayenne, jalapeño, etc.) are less sensitive to cold than sweet ones. Optimal temperature for most hot varieties is 7–10 °C, but some varieties can be stored at 5 °C for 2–3 weeks without visible signs of damage (Bosland and Votava, 2012; Cantwell, 2013b). However, below 7 °C, hot peppers may also show signs of chilling injury – seed darkening, loss of gloss, and tissue softening.

General rule: do not store peppers below 7 °C for more than 5–7 days, unless you are sure the variety is cold‑tolerant. Short‑term cooling (1–2 days) at 5 °C is acceptable, but long‑term storage at such temperatures leads to irreversible quality losses (Gil and Tudela, 2012; Cantwell, 2013b).

Humidity during storage

The second most important parameter after temperature is relative humidity. For peppers, the optimal humidity is 90–95% (Gil and Tudela, 2012; Panteleev, 1986). This is a very high level, and it is difficult to maintain in ordinary home conditions, but you should strive for it.

Why is high humidity so important?

Pepper loses moisture very quickly due to the large surface‑to‑volume ratio (the fruit is hollow inside). At low humidity (below 80%), fruits lose firmness within 2–3 days, shrivel, walls become flabby, and taste deteriorates. A weight loss of just 4–5% already makes the fruit unmarketable and greatly reduces its nutritional value (Ben‑Yehoshua, 1987; Lownds et al., 1994).

How to maintain high humidity at home:

• Store peppers in perforated plastic bags – this creates a microclimate with about 95% humidity (Gil and Tudela, 2012).
• Use plastic containers with lids, but do not seal them airtight – leave small gaps for gas exchange.
• In a cellar or basement, place containers of water or damp cloths to increase air humidity.
• Avoid condensation: if water drops appear on fruits or inside packaging, this promotes rot development. In such cases, provide additional ventilation (Cantwell and Suslow, 2002).

Ventilation and gas exchange

Pepper, like any living organism, respires – absorbs oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. If fruits are stored in airtight containers without air access, the carbon dioxide concentration inside increases and oxygen decreases. This can lead to:

• a slowdown in respiration, which seems good, but in the absence of oxygen, anaerobic respiration (fermentation) processes start, spoiling taste and causing unpleasant odours;
• an increase in humidity inside the packaging to 100%, creating ideal conditions for mould and rot (Gil and Tudela, 2012).

Rule: store peppers in containers that allow gas exchange. These can be perforated plastic bags, plastic crates with slits, cardboard boxes with holes. The optimal atmosphere composition for pepper storage: 2–5% oxygen and no more than 5% carbon dioxide (Saltveit, 1997; Kader and Saltveit, 2003). When CO₂ exceeds 5%, peppers show damage – dents, discolouration of calyxes, tissue softening (Gil and Tudela, 2012).

Storage times depending on conditions

Under optimal conditions (7–10 °C, humidity 90–95%, good ventilation):

At room temperature (20–25 °C), storage time is reduced to 3–7 days, with fruits quickly losing moisture, becoming limp, and losing flavour (Cantwell, 2013a; Gil and Tudela, 2012).

How to tell that pepper is starting to spoil?

Signs of spoilage to look out for:

• Loss of firmness, wrinkling of skin;
• Appearance of dark or watery spots;
• Blackening of the pedicel or calyx;
• Mouldy or sour smell;
• Soft, "glassy" areas on the skin.

If you notice such signs, remove those fruits from the common storage to prevent them from infecting neighbouring ones.

Chilling injury: how to recognise it

Chilling injury is one of the main causes of losses during pepper storage. It occurs when fruits are stored below 7 °C for more than 10–14 days (Gil and Tudela, 2012). Symptoms:

• Depressed spots on the surface (resembling pits);
• Darkening or discolouration of tissues, especially around the pedicel;
• Accelerated rot development (especially caused by Alternaria fungus);
• Loss of ability to ripen after harvest (fruits do not turn red or yellow unevenly);
• Deterioration of taste, appearance of bitterness (Bosland and Votava, 2012).

Important: chilling injury may not appear immediately, but only after the fruits are moved to warmer conditions. Therefore, if you stored peppers at a low temperature and notice signs of spoilage after moving to warmth – it is most likely chilling injury.

Practical tips for organising storage

1. For short‑term storage (up to 1 week): can be kept at room temperature in a perforated plastic bag, but only if the fruits are dry and intact.

2. For medium‑term storage (2–3 weeks): use the refrigerator (vegetable drawer) at 7–10 °C. Place fruits in perforated bags to maintain humidity and gas exchange.

3. For long‑term storage (more than 3 weeks): special conditions are needed – strictly controlled temperature and humidity. This is difficult to achieve at home, so aim for a storage period of up to 3 weeks.

4. Do not store peppers near apples, pears, bananas, or other fruits that emit a lot of ethylene – this accelerates ageing and spoilage of fruits (Bosland and Votava, 2012). Ethylene accelerates chlorophyll loss, but at the same time fruits become softer and spoil faster.

In the next chapter: we will consider specific storage methods – fresh peppers, drying, and freezing, taking into account the differences for sweet and hot peppers.

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Fresh storage: a brief summary of rules

The main parameters for storing fresh fruits were covered in the previous chapter. Here we recall the key points and add important nuances for sweet and hot peppers.

General rules for all types:

• Store only whole, undamaged fruits with pedicel;
• Optimal temperature: 7–10 °C (for sweet) and 7–10 °C (for hot, though some varieties tolerate 5 °C);
• Relative humidity: 90–95%;
• Good ventilation, but without drafts;
• Avoid proximity to ethylene‑producing fruits (apples, pears, bananas).

Specifics for sweet peppers:

• Green fruits (technical maturity) keep 2–3 weeks;
• Red/yellow/orange (biological maturity) – 1–2 weeks, as they are softer and lose moisture faster;
• Sweet pepper is very sensitive to chilling injury, so temperatures below 7 °C are unacceptable (Gil and Tudela, 2012).

Specifics for hot peppers:

• Many hot pepper varieties (jalapeño, serrano, cayenne) are more cold‑tolerant and can be stored at 5 °C for up to 2–3 weeks without visible damage (Cantwell, 2013a);
• However, with prolonged storage below 7 °C, seed darkening and loss of gloss may appear;
• Hot peppers at technical maturity (green) keep slightly longer than fully ripe (red) ones, as they have denser tissue (Bosland and Votava, 2012).

Practical advice for home storage:

If you cannot maintain 7–10 °C and high humidity, use perforated plastic bags and store peppers in the vegetable drawer of the refrigerator. This will give a storage life of about 1–2 weeks for sweet peppers and up to 3 weeks for hot peppers.

Drying peppers: the classic method of long‑term storage

Drying is one of the oldest and most reliable ways to preserve peppers, especially hot ones. Dried fruits take up little space, do not require cold, and can be stored for years. They retain pungency, aroma, and some vitamins (Bosland and Votava, 2012; De, 2003).

Which peppers are suitable for drying?

• Hot peppers (chili, cayenne, jalapeño, tabasco, bird's eye, etc.) – almost all varieties are dried;
• Sweet peppers (paprika) – special varieties with thin walls and high dry matter content are dried (Bosland and Votava, 2012). Thick‑walled sweet peppers (bell peppers) are more difficult to dry – they take a long time and may rot.

Preparation for drying:

1. Harvest fruits at biological maturity (red, orange, yellow) – they have the highest dry matter and carotenoid content (De, 2003; Yogeesha and Gowda, 2003).

2. Select healthy fruits without damage or signs of rot.

3. Wash and dry thoroughly (or wipe) – excess moisture slows drying and can cause mould.

4. Remove the pedicel (unlike fresh storage, it is not needed for drying). You can cut fruits lengthwise to speed up drying – especially for thick‑walled varieties.

5. Optionally, remove seeds (they can be dried separately or together with the fruit, but seeds increase drying time).

Drying methods:

Natural (air) drying – outdoors:

• Traditional method for regions with hot, dry climates.
• Fruits are spread in a single layer on a clean surface (nets, trays, cloth) in the sun or in the shade with good ventilation.
• Use gauze covers to protect from insects and dust.
• Drying time – from several days to 2–3 weeks depending on weather and wall thickness (De, 2003; Bosland and Votava, 2012).
• Important: in conditions of high humidity or night dew, fruits may become mouldy, so this method is only suitable for southern regions with sustained heat.

Oven or dehydrator drying (artificial drying):

• The most reliable and fastest method for home conditions.
• Temperature: 50–60 °C (not above 65 °C, otherwise carotenoids are destroyed and colour deteriorates) (De, 2003; Yogeesha and Gowda, 2003).
• Spread fruits in a single layer on baking sheets or racks, turn occasionally for even drying.
• Drying time in a convection oven – 4–6 hours, in a conventional oven – 8–12 hours (with the door slightly open to release moisture).
• In an electric food dehydrator, the process takes 6–10 hours at 55–60 °C.
• Sign of readiness: fruits become brittle, break rather than bend, and no moisture is released when pressed.

Drying on strings (garlands) – "Christmas wreaths":

• Fruits with pedicels are threaded onto a string or fishing line by piercing them near the top.
• Garlands are hung in a dry, warm, well‑ventilated place (kitchen, veranda).
• This is not only a drying method but also a decorative element. Drying time – 2–4 weeks depending on air humidity.

Storage of dried peppers:

• Dried fruits are stored in tightly closed glass jars, paper bags, or cloth sacks in a dark, dry, cool place (Bosland and Votava, 2012).
• Shelf life – up to 2–3 years under proper conditions.
• To extend shelf life and preserve colour, you can store in the refrigerator or freezer (but always in airtight packaging to prevent moisture absorption).
• Important: dried peppers lose colour over time – this is a natural process caused by oxidation of carotenoids. To slow colour loss, store in a dark place at low temperature (De, 2003).

Freezing peppers: preserving freshness for a long time

Freezing is an excellent way to preserve peppers with minimal loss of vitamins and flavour. Frozen fruits can be used for cooking throughout the year (Kemble, 2022; Bosland and Votava, 2012).

Which peppers are suitable for freezing?

• Sweet peppers (bell, thick‑walled) – freeze very well, retain colour and texture, although they become slightly softer after thawing;
• Hot peppers – freeze even better, as their structure is denser and they lose shape less;
• Pungency is fully preserved during freezing.

Preparation for freezing:

1. Select healthy, whole fruits, wash and dry.

2. Remove the pedicel and seeds (optional – seeds can be removed to reduce bitterness when using sweet peppers).

3. Cut into cubes, strips, rings, or leave whole (for stuffing) – as convenient for future use.

4. Blanching: for sweet peppers, it is recommended to blanch the cut fruits in boiling water for 2–3 minutes, then quickly cool in ice water. Blanching inactivates enzymes that could cause colour loss and flavour changes during long‑term storage (Bosland and Votava, 2012; Kemble, 2022). Hot peppers can be frozen without blanching, as they contain fewer enzymes and maintain quality better without blanching.

5. After blanching, dry the fruits thoroughly on paper towels – excess moisture will cause pieces to stick together during freezing.

Freezing methods:

Individual Quick Freezing (IQF):

• Spread the cut fruits in a single layer on a tray lined with parchment and place in the freezer for 2–3 hours.
• When the pieces are frozen individually, transfer them to bags or containers for long‑term storage.
• This method allows you to take the desired amount without thawing the whole bag.

Freezing in bags or containers:

• Pack the prepared fruits in freezer bags, remove as much air as possible, and seal tightly.
• For convenience, portion them – as much as you need for one use.
• Block freezing (tightly packed pieces) takes longer to thaw but saves space in the freezer.

Storage times:

• At –18 °C or below, frozen peppers keep for 8–12 months (Kemble, 2022).
• After thawing, use within a day; do not refreeze.

Uses of frozen peppers:

• For salads and fresh consumption, frozen peppers are not suitable – they become soft after thawing.
• Use them for stewing, frying, soups, sauces, fillings, casseroles.
• Thawing before cooking is not necessary – they can be added directly from the freezer.

Canning, pickling and other processing methods

Besides drying and freezing, there are other ways to preserve peppers:

Pickling (vinegar preservation):

• Both hot and sweet peppers are pickled whole or in pieces.
• The brine usually consists of water, vinegar, salt, sugar, and spices.
• Jars are sterilised, after which the product can be stored at room temperature for up to 1 year.
• Pickled peppers are used as a snack, addition to salads, meat dishes (Bosland and Votava, 2012).

Salting (fermentation):

• Traditional method for hot peppers (e.g., Tabasco pepper sauce).
• Fruits are crushed, salted (14–20% salt), and left to ferment for several months (Bosland and Votava, 2012).
• At home, peppers can be fermented in glass jars with a weight, in a cool place.
• The result is a pungent, aromatic product with beneficial probiotics.

Making pepper powder (paprika, chili powder):

• Dried fruits are ground into powder using a coffee grinder or mill.
• Store in airtight jars in a dark place.
• The powder is used as a seasoning.
• Important: grinding releases pungent dust, so work in a respirator or with good ventilation, especially with hot varieties (Bosland and Votava, 2012).

Oleoresin (capsaicin extract):

• An industrial method of obtaining an oil extract, but at home you can make an infusion in vegetable oil.
• For this, dried hot peppers are covered with warm vegetable oil (odourless) and left to infuse for 1–2 weeks in a dark place.
• The oil is used to add heat to dishes.

Comparative table of storage methods

General recommendations for choosing a storage method

1. For a small harvest (5–10 kg): use refrigeration (fresh storage) and freezing – these are the simplest and fastest methods.

2. For a large harvest (over 10 kg): drying and pickling are the best options – they do not take up much refrigerator space and ensure long‑term storage.

3. If you grow hot peppers: drying is the most traditional and effective method. Freezing is also good, but dried peppers are more versatile (can be ground, infused in oil, used whole).

4. If you grow sweet peppers: freezing is the optimal choice for preserving vitamins and flavour. Drying thick‑walled varieties is difficult and often not worthwhile.

Conclusion

Harvesting and storing pepper crops is a multifaceted task that requires understanding fruit physiology, choosing the right harvest time, careful cutting, skilled postharvest ripening, and proper storage. By following the recommendations outlined in this article, you will be able to:

• extend plant fruiting through timely harvesting at technical maturity;
• obtain high‑quality fruits with maximum vitamin content and flavour;
• preserve the harvest for a long time using the methods best suited to your conditions (fresh storage, drying, freezing, or canning).

Remember: the key to success is attentive care for the fruits at every stage, from garden to table. Good luck and abundant harvests!