Pests

The Life Cycle of Pests

Most pear pests go through several developmental stages: egg, larva (caterpillar), pupa, and adult (imago). Each stage is vulnerable in its own way, and knowing these details allows you to choose the most effective control methods.

Overwintering stages. Many pests survive the cold in a dormant state. The codling moth overwinters as a caterpillar in a dense cocoon under loose bark, in trunk cracks, or in plant debris at the base of the tree (Westwood, 1993). The pear psyllid overwinters as an adult in bark crevices or under fallen leaves. Eggs of the European red mite can be found at the base of fruit buds (Jackson, 2003). Knowing exactly where a specific pest overwinters gives the grower the ability to carry out preventive treatments precisely when they are most effective.

Timing of emergence. Warmth and moisture trigger developmental mechanisms. For instance, codling moth caterpillars pupate in spring when temperatures are consistently above freezing, and moth flight begins 2–3 weeks after pear bloom (Rieger, 2010). Pear psyllids become active when the average daily temperature reaches 10 °C. Keep in mind that insect development is directly temperature-dependent: the warmer it is, the faster the life cycle, and several generations can occur in a single season.

Favorable Conditions for Pest Development

Nature is designed so that healthy plants can resist most pests. However, certain conditions weaken this defense.

Monoculture and lack of biodiversity. An orchard consisting solely of pear trees is an ideal environment for the mass reproduction of specialized pests. In nature, insect numbers are regulated by their natural enemies—predatory beetles, birds, parasitic wasps. When we plant large areas with a single crop, we create a "food buffer" for pests: plenty of food, while predators that have not yet migrated or reproduced are scarce (Buckingham, 2010).

Warm and humid weather. Many pests become active precisely in warm, humid weather. For example, aphids multiply massively at moderate temperatures (20–25 °C) and high humidity. Dry, hot weather, on the other hand, can suppress their development, but it creates favorable conditions for spider mites, which thrive in dry air (Westwood, 1993). Sharp temperature fluctuations, winter thaws, and prolonged spring rains all affect pest numbers—and their impact on different developmental stages can be quite different.

Weakened trees. This is perhaps the most important factor. Trees under stress from lack of water, poor nutrition, mechanical damage, or disease become more susceptible to pests. Wood-boring pests (bark beetles, flatheaded borers) almost always attack weakened specimens. A healthy tree can exude resins and other defensive substances that make it difficult for insects to penetrate the bark (Jackson, 2003).

The Impact of Agricultural Practices

The way a gardener cares for the orchard directly determines the likelihood of pest outbreaks.

Soil condition. Waterlogged or, conversely, overly dry soil weakens the root system, affecting the entire tree. Pear, especially on dwarf rootstocks, is very sensitive to moisture deficiency (Rieger, 2010). Trees under water stress are more vulnerable to pests. A proper soil management system (e.g., grassing between rows) promotes a healthy root system and increases plant resistance (Krivko, 2014).

Fertilization. Excess nitrogen fertilizer stimulates excessive shoot growth. Young, succulent, tender tissues are especially attractive to aphids and other sap-sucking pests. It is on these vigorous "luxuriant" shoots that aphids reproduce most rapidly (Krivko, 2014). Balanced nutrition with an emphasis on potassium and phosphorus makes tissues denser and less attractive to pests.

Sanitary condition. Rough, peeling bark, hollows, cracks, and unremoved dry branches are shelters for overwintering stages. Codling moths like to overwinter under loose bark, and bark beetles under the bark of dead branches. Timely cleaning of trunks, sealing wounds, removing dead branches, and regular whitewashing deprive pests of the opportunity to overwinter near the tree (Buckingham, 2010).

Crop residues. Left on the ground or on the tree, fallen fruit and mummified fruit are a source of infection for many pests. For example, codling moth caterpillars overwinter in fruit left on the tree. Timely collection and destruction of fallen fruit is a crucial preventive measure (Buckingham, 2010).

Pruning. A dense canopy means shade, poor ventilation, and high humidity inside the crown, creating ideal conditions not only for diseases but also for many pests. Additionally, dense canopies are difficult to treat, and even the best insecticides may not reach hard-to-access areas (Buckingham, 2010). Proper pruning that ensures air circulation and light penetration into the canopy is one of the best preventive measures.

Summary. The appearance of pests in a pear orchard is not accidental but the result of a combination of biological, climatic, and agronomic factors. In the next chapter, we will examine specific leaf pests, their signs, and control methods in detail.

Leaf-Chewing Pests

These insects feed directly on the leaf flesh, eating it entirely or skeletonizing it (leaving only the veins). Damaged leaves appear torn, with holes, or completely eaten.

Main representatives:

• Leafrollers (Tortricidae). The caterpillars of these moths roll leaves into a tube or ball using silk and eat them from the inside. On pears, the most common are the fruit tree leafroller and the rose leafroller (Buckingham, 2010). Damaged leaves are easily recognized by characteristic rolled "cigars" containing a green or brown caterpillar.

• Winter moth (Operophtera brumata). The caterpillars of this pest eat leaves from the edges, leaving uneven notches. Population outbreaks occur in spring, immediately after bud break. In severe infestations, leaves can be completely consumed, weakening the tree (Westwood, 1993).

• Pear sawfly (Caliroa cerasi), often called the "pear slug" in common parlance. Its larvae, resembling small black slugs, scrape off the upper leaf tissue, leaving only a transparent network of veins—skeletonization. They feed in June–July, mostly on young trees (Westwood, 1993).

How to control:

• Mechanically. In spring, leafroller and winter moth caterpillars can be hand-picked in small gardens. Pick and destroy rolled leaves along with the caterpillars.

• Biopesticides. Products based on Bacillus thuringiensis (Bitoxibacillin, Lepidocide) are effective against caterpillars. They are safe for beneficial insects but require repeated applications during the caterpillar feeding period (Buckingham, 2010).

• Chemically. At high numbers, use approved insecticides (pyrethroids, neonicotinoids) strictly according to instructions, observing the pre-harvest interval. Apply treatments during the "green cone" stage (bud burst) and immediately after flowering, when caterpillars are most vulnerable.

Sap-Sucking Pests

This is the largest and most dangerous group. Pests puncture the leaf blade and suck out sap, causing chlorosis, deformation, drying, and premature leaf drop. They also excrete sweet honeydew, on which sooty mold develops, impairing photosynthesis. Some species are vectors of viral and mycoplasma diseases.

Main representatives:

• Pear psyllid (Cacopsylla pyricola, formerly Psylla pyricola) — the most dangerous sap-sucking pest of pear. Adults and their nymphs suck sap from leaves, shoots, and fruit. Signs: curling and yellowing of leaves, abundant sticky secretions (honeydew) with black sooty mold developing on them. The psyllid also transmits the mycoplasma that causes pear decline—a deadly disease (Rieger, 2010; Jackson, 2003). It produces 3–5 generations per season.

• Aphids (Aphididae). On pear, you will find the green apple aphid and the pear aphid. They colonize young shoots and the undersides of leaves, causing curling and deformation. They secrete honeydew, which attracts ants and promotes sooty mold development (Buckingham, 2010).

• Mites (Tetranychidae, Eriophyidae):
• European red mite (Panonychus ulmi) — damages leaves of pear, apple, and other crops. By sucking sap, it causes small light-colored spots (punctures) on the upper leaf surface. In heavy infestations, leaves turn bronze, dry out, and fall (Westwood, 1993).
• Two-spotted spider mite (Tetranychus urticae) — active in dry, hot weather. It covers the undersides of leaves with fine webbing.
• Pear leaf blister mite (Eriophyes pyri) — a microscopic pest that causes blister-like galls (yellow-brown bumps) on leaves. Larvae overwinter in bud scales and damage young leaves in spring (Westwood, 1993; Rieger, 2010).

How to control:

• Early spring treatments. Before bud break, when the average daily temperature is above 4–5 °C, spray with mineral oils (e.g., "Preparation 30" or its analogs). The oil film blocks the breathing pores of overwintering eggs and larvae of mites, aphids, and psyllids (Rieger, 2010).

• Against mites use acaricides (special products for mites, e.g., based on clofentezine, bifenazate). Regular insecticides do not work on mites. Apply at the first signs of damage (May–June) with a repeat after 10–14 days if necessary.

• Against aphids and psyllids systemic insecticides (e.g., based on acetamiprid, imidacloprid) are effective; they penetrate tissues and act on sap-sucking insects. However, it is important to observe the pre-harvest interval and rotate products to avoid resistance (Jackson, 2003).

• Biological control. Attracting ladybugs, green lacewings, and other predatory insects to the orchard helps keep aphid numbers in check. Sow nectar-producing plants (dill, buckwheat, phacelia) between rows. Predatory mites Typhlodromus pyri are effective against spider mites (Jackson, 2003). However, in amateur gardens, this method is rarely used; treatments are more common.

Leaf-Mining Pests

The larvae of these insects burrow into the leaf blade and mine the internal tissues, feeding on them. From the outside, this looks like winding light or brown lines, sometimes with expanding patches.

On pear, you may find the pear leaf miner (e.g., species of the genus Phyllonorycter or Leucoptera). Larvae overwinter in cocoons under bud scales or in bark crevices. In spring, moths lay eggs on young leaves, and the emerging caterpillars eat mines. In severe infestations, leaves drop prematurely (Buckingham, 2010). The apple leaf miner may also occur on pear, but it prefers apple.

How to control:

• Prevention. Collecting and burning fallen leaves in autumn is the primary measure, as pupae overwinter in them.

• Spring spraying. Before bud break—with mineral oils to destroy overwintering cocoons.

• Summer treatments. Against actively feeding caterpillars, systemic insecticides (e.g., based on thiamethoxam) or biopesticides (based on Bacillus thuringiensis) are effective; apply them as soon as the first mines are detected. Repeat after 7–10 days to target newly emerged generations (Buckingham, 2010).

General Preventive Measures Against Leaf Pests

Regardless of the group, there are universal practices that significantly reduce the risk of mass outbreaks:

1. Sanitary pruning and bark cleaning. Remove dry, damaged, and overcrowded branches. Clean off dead bark on trunks and thick branches, and seal wounds with garden wound paste. This deprives pests of overwintering sites (Buckingham, 2010).

2. Collect and destroy plant debris. Fallen leaves, fallen fruit, mummified fruit—all are potential shelters for overwintering stages. In autumn, rake leaves and compost them separately or burn them.

3. Maintain tree health. Regular watering (especially during dry periods) and balanced nutrition (with an emphasis on phosphorus and potassium) strengthen tissues and increase resistance to sap-sucking pests. Avoid excess nitrogen, which promotes succulent shoot growth attractive to aphids and psyllids (Krivko, 2014).

4. Attract beneficial entomofauna. Sow flowering nectar plants between rows. They attract predatory insects that regulate aphid and caterpillar numbers.

5. Regular monitoring. Inspect leaves carefully, especially the undersides and young shoots, from May to August. At the first signs (curling, chlorosis, sticky secretions, mines), take action before mass reproduction occurs.

In the next chapter, we will move on to pests that attack flowers and fruit—those that directly deprive us of the harvest.

Weevils (Blossom Weevils)

Weevils are beetles with a distinctive head elongated into a "snout." The most dangerous for pear is the apple blossom weevil (Anthonomus pomorum) and related species. Although they more often damage apple, pear also suffers from their infestations, especially in mixed orchards.

Life cycle and signs. Beetles overwinter in bark crevices, under fallen leaves, and in the soil. Early in spring, when temperatures rise to 6–8 °C, they wake up and climb into the canopy. During the bud separation stage, females lay one egg inside each bud, gnawing a hole. They then gnaw through the pedicel, causing the bud to dry out, turn brown, and hang (the "cap" sign). The larva develops inside and pupates there. Adult beetles emerge during flowering and feed on leaves, making small holes (Buckingham, 2010; Westwood, 1993).

Control measures:

• Early spring shaking. During bud swelling, early in the morning at temperatures below 10 °C (beetles are sluggish), spread a sheet or cloth under the tree and shake the branches vigorously. Collect and destroy the fallen beetles. Effective in small gardens.
• Spraying. At the "green cone" or bud separation stage, apply approved insecticides (e.g., based on cypermethrin or lambda-cyhalothrin). It is important to treat before females lay eggs inside the buds—after that, spraying is useless (Rieger, 2010).
• Collect fallen caps. Brown "caps"—dried buds with larvae inside—should be collected and burned throughout the season.

Fruitworms (Codling Moths)

These are moths whose caterpillars develop inside fruits, eating the flesh and seeds. Damaged fruits drop prematurely or become wormy and inedible.

Gall Midges (Fruit Gall Midges)

Small dipteran insects resembling gnats. Gall midge larvae develop inside plant tissues, causing galls (swellings) or organ deformation.

Pear fruit gall midge (Contarinia pyrivora) — a specific pear pest. Females lay eggs in buds and flowers during bloom. Larvae feed on developing seeds, destroying them, and secrete substances that stimulate hypertrophic growth of the ovary wall, which becomes swollen, fleshy, and inedible. Damaged fruit become deformed, turn black, remain on the tree (mummify), or drop prematurely. A single fruit may contain dozens of larvae (Jackson, 2003; Buckingham, 2010 — mentioned as "misshapen, blackened fruits fall while still young").

Control measures:

• Prevention. Collect and destroy mummified fruit left on the tree—larvae overwinter in them.
• Spraying. During bud swelling and early flowering, apply contact insecticides (pyrethroids) to kill adults before egg laying. Since gall midge flight coincides with flowering, choose products relatively safe for bees and apply in the evening.
• Agronomy. Deep digging of trunk circles in autumn helps kill some larvae overwintering in the soil.

Other Fruit Pests

General Principles for Protecting Flowers and Fruit

1. Accurate phenology knowledge. Treatment timing is linked to tree developmental stages (bud separation, beginning of bloom, end of bloom, start of fruit growth) and pest flight (pheromone traps). Do not treat "just in case"—it is useless and environmentally harmful.

2. Product rotation. To avoid resistance, rotate insecticides from different chemical groups (pyrethroids, neonicotinoids, chitin synthesis inhibitors). For each generation, use products with different modes of action (Jackson, 2003).

3. Bee protection. During bloom, avoid using insecticides highly toxic to bees. If treatment is necessary, apply it in the evening (after sunset) and choose products with short pre-harvest intervals and low toxicity to entomophages.

4. Collect and destroy fallen fruit and mummified fruit. This is a key practice: it breaks the development cycle and reduces the next generation's population. Do this daily during the period of heavy fruit drop.

5. Tree bands. Place bands of corrugated cardboard or burlap on trunks in late summer (3–4 weeks before harvest) so that codling moth caterpillars crawl into them for wintering. Remove and burn bands in winter.

In the next chapter, we will look at pests that attack pear wood and roots—they are often less conspicuous but can be especially dangerous to the tree's life.

Bark Beetles

Bark beetles (Scolytidae) are small beetles that bore tunnels under the bark and into the wood. The pear bark beetle (Scolytus pyri) and related species attack pear. In Russia and the CIS countries, other bark beetle species damaging fruit trees are also common (Krivko, 2014).

Life cycle and signs. Adults overwinter in bark or the topsoil. In spring, they emerge, mate, and females bore entry holes through the bark, constructing egg galleries (longitudinal or transverse) in the phloem and sapwood. Along the galleries, they lay eggs. Emerging larvae bore their own galleries (larval galleries), usually perpendicular to the egg gallery, and feed on phloem and cambium. Bark beetle galleries have characteristic patterns visible on the inner side of removed bark. In mass infestations, the tree dies within one to two seasons (Westwood, 1993).

Signs of infestation:

• Small round holes in the bark (flight and entry holes) oozing gum or brown dust.
• Brown wood dust ("boring dust") at the base of the trunk or in branch forks.
• Peeling and falling bark, beneath which galleries are visible.
• Yellowing and wilting of leaves on individual branches or the entire canopy, starting from the top.

Risk factors. Bark beetles almost always colonize weakened trees—after severe winters, drought, mechanical damage, root diseases, or trees with disrupted water regimes (Westwood, 1993; Rieger, 2010). Healthy, actively growing trees can exude resin and "drown" the beetles, blocking their tunnels.

Control measures:

• Mainly prevention. Keep trees in good condition: regular watering during dry periods, balanced nutrition (potassium, phosphorus), timely pruning and wound sealing.
• Autumn whitewashing of trunks and bases of scaffold branches protects against frost cracks—entry points for bark beetles. In southern regions, whitewash in autumn and repeat during winter thaws (Krivko, 2014).
• Cut out and destroy infested branches. When signs of infestation appear on individual branches, cut them off immediately and burn them, taking at least 30–40 cm of healthy wood below the affected area. Seal cuts with garden paste or oil paint.
• Bait. In small gardens, you can use trap logs. Freshly cut thin branches or trunk sections of pear are placed in the rows in spring (before beetle flight) as bait. After 2–4 weeks, collect and burn the logs with colonized beetles, preventing their emergence. This method requires regular monitoring and timely destruction.
• Chemical treatments. At high pest numbers, apply contact insecticides during beetle flight (spring, early summer) to trunks and main branches. However, in amateur gardens, this method is rarely used due to the need for thorough bark coverage.

Wood Borers (Large Longhorn Beetles and Clearwing Moths)

Unlike bark beetles, whose larvae are small and feed on phloem, wood borer larvae are larger and bore deep into the wood, weakening the mechanical strength of branches and the trunk.

Main species on pear (in temperate zones):

• Pear flatheaded borer (Agrilus sinuatus) — a beetle from the Buprestidae family, whose larva excavates long spiral tunnels under bark and in sapwood, weakening branches and causing them to die. Adults emerge in June–July and feed on leaves (Westwood, 1993, mentions flatheaded borers as fruit pests).
• Apple clearwing moth (Synanthedon myopaeformis) — a clear-winged moth resembling a wasp. Its larvae bore into the bark and tunnel in the cambium and upper wood, causing swellings and galls, often at the graft union or the base of the trunk (Westwood, 1993, mentions related clearwing species). Note: the main author sources (Buckingham, Rieger) do not highlight clearwing moths as a major pear pest, but in Russian practice (Krivko, 2014), they are mentioned for apple and other fruit trees.

Signs. Swellings and galls on the bark, gum exudation, bark peeling, with broad tunnels filled with boring dust and frass visible underneath (Jackson, 2003; Westwood, 1993).

Control measures:

• Same as for bark beetles: maintain tree health, cut out and burn severely damaged branches, clean and seal wounds.
• For flatheaded borers — early spring insecticide spraying (pyrethroids) during adult emergence (usually June) to prevent egg laying. This is especially important in southern regions.
• Mechanical destruction. If a swelling is found on a branch, you can try to probe and cut out the larva using a thin flexible hook (wire), but this method is labor-intensive and effective only for isolated damage on small trees.

Root Pests

The pear root system can be attacked by several groups of pests that gnaw roots, reducing water and mineral uptake and opening the door to infections (e.g., root rots).

Main representatives:

• Larvae of the May beetle (June beetle) (Melolontha melolontha and related species). Thick white or yellowish larvae (up to 4–5 cm long) live in the soil for 3–4 years and feed on tree and shrub roots. They are most dangerous for young saplings and trees up to 5–7 years old. They eat fine roots, and at high densities can completely gnaw through the main taproot, leading to plant death (Westwood, 1993 — pest table; Krivko, 2014).
• Root aphids. On pear, a root form of the pear aphid (genus Eriosoma) occurs, feeding on roots in some regions, causing galls and weakening trees (Westwood, 1993, mentions root aphids for other crops; for pear, specific Eriosoma pyricola).
• Root weevils (e.g., Brachyrhinus ovatus). Adults eat leaves and bark of young shoots, but the main damage comes from larvae gnawing roots near the soil surface. Most dangerous for young plants and nurseries (Westwood, 1993).
• Nematodes (microscopic worms, e.g., Pratylenchus penetrans) can attack pear roots, causing galls and necrosis, impairing growth, especially on light soils (Jackson, 2003). Although nematodes often do not cause obvious tree death, they weaken trees and reduce yield.

Signs of root pest damage:

• Stunted growth, small chlorotic leaves.
• Wilting in hot weather despite watering.
• Exposed roots in the trunk circle (due to erosion)—gnaw marks or gall-like swellings (from aphids) may be visible on roots.
• White larvae present in the soil when digging.

Control measures:

• Dig and loosen trunk circles in autumn and spring, especially in young orchards. Deep digging (spade depth) in autumn brings overwintering chafer larvae to the surface, where they die from frost or are eaten by birds (Krivko, 2014). Caution: do not dig deeply near the trunk to avoid damaging surface roots; treat the area along the canopy perimeter.
• Insecticide drenching. In cases of mass chafer larval infestation, soil drenching with insecticide solutions (based on imidacloprid, diazinon) can be used according to instructions. In amateur gardens, this is a last resort, better replaced by biopreparations (e.g., based on entomopathogenic nematodes Steinernema or Heterorhabditis against chafer larvae). These products are safe for humans and the environment and effective in warm, wet conditions (spring–autumn).
• Prevention of root aphids. Use resistant rootstocks (including in commercial orchards; for amateur orchards, choosing a variety on a resistant rootstock is a good solution). Systematically inspect saplings before planting.
• Crop rotation. Do not plant pear (or other fruit trees) on a site where fruit crops were previously grown without a break of at least 4–5 years, especially if tree decline due to a complex of replantation problems was observed (Jackson, 2003 — detailed on replant disease, which may be linked to the buildup of pathogens and pests, including nematodes).

General Principles for Protecting Wood and Roots

1. Prevention is the foundation. Bark beetles, flatheaded borers, and root pests almost always attack weakened trees. Therefore, anything that improves overall tree health (watering, nutrition, pruning, disease protection) simultaneously protects against these pests. Avoid mechanical damage to bark (from mowers, tools), and treat wounds promptly.

2. Sanitary pruning. Remove and burn all dry, dying, broken, and stem pest-infested branches. This is the primary measure to reduce population numbers. When pruning, take a section of healthy wood at least 30 cm long.

3. Whitewashing. Whitewashing trunks and scaffold branch bases in autumn (and again during winter thaws, especially in southern regions) protects bark from frost cracks and sunscald, which serve as entry points for bark beetles and flatheaded borers. Use whitewash with copper sulfate added for extra protection (Krivko, 2014).

4. Traps and baits. Use pheromone traps to monitor bark beetle flight in large orchards. For small orchards, use trap logs from freshly cut pear or apple wood (in spring), which are colonized by beetles and then burned.

5. Insecticide treatments. During beetle flight (spring–early summer), preventive spraying of trunks and thick branches with contact insecticides (pyrethroids) can be done. However, this is an additional measure, not a substitute for sanitation.

6. Planting material. When buying saplings, inspect the root system for galls, growths, and damage. Purchase saplings only from reputable nurseries that conduct phytosanitary control.

In the next, fifth chapter, we will discuss a comprehensive system of preventive measures—what will allow you to minimize the risk of pest occurrence overall.

5.1. Sanitary Measures

Sanitary measures aim to eliminate overwintering and breeding sites for pests and remove sources of infection. These are the most accessible and effective practices for any gardener.

Pruning and canopy shaping. Regular pruning ensures air circulation and light penetration into the canopy, reducing humidity and creating unfavorable conditions for many pests. Additionally, removing dry, broken, diseased, and overcrowded branches deprives bark beetles, wood borers, and overwintering codling moth caterpillars of their shelters. All cut branches showing signs of infestation should be burned (Buckingham, 2010). Shaping a sparse canopy also makes inspection and spraying easier.

Cleaning trunks and scaffold branches. Dead, peeling bark is an ideal overwintering site for the codling moth, leafrollers, scale insects, and mites. In autumn (or early spring before bud break), old bark is scraped off with scrapers or stiff brushes down to healthy tissue, with a sheet spread under the tree. The removed bark and debris are burned. Cleaned areas are whitewashed (Westwood, 1993; Buckingham, 2010).

Whitewashing trunks and scaffold branch bases. Autumn whitewashing (and repeated during winter thaws in southern regions) protects bark from frost cracks and sunscald, which are entry points for bark beetles and disease pathogens. Use a lime solution with copper or iron sulfate added. It is important to whitewash before mid-January, while the tree is in deep dormancy (Krivko, 2014).

Collecting and destroying plant debris. Fallen leaves, fallen fruit, and mummified fruit (left on the tree) are reservoirs for overwintering stages. Codling moth larvae develop in fallen fruit; gall midges and rot pathogens overwinter in mummified fruit. Therefore:

• Collect fallen fruit daily during the period of heavy drop (especially after "June drop" and before harvest) and bury them deep in a compost pit or burn them.
• Remove mummified fruit from the tree in autumn and destroy them.
• Rake fallen leaves in autumn and compost them separately (layered with soil) or incorporate them into the soil; in amateur gardens, burning is often preferred to destroy scab spores and overwintering leaf miner pupae (Buckingham, 2010).

Tree bands. In late summer (about 3–4 weeks before harvest), place bands of corrugated cardboard or burlap on trunks and lower parts of scaffold branches. Codling moth caterpillars crawl into them for pupation and overwintering. Remove bands after leaf fall and burn them without unrolling. This practice yields noticeable results when applied systematically (Westwood, 1993).

Autumn digging of trunk circles. Deep digging of soil in trunk circles (carefully, to avoid root damage; preferably along the canopy perimeter) in autumn brings overwintering codling moth pupae, chafer larvae, and other soil pests to the surface. They die from frost or become prey for birds. In inter-rows, digging can be done to a depth of 15–20 cm (Krivko, 2014). Caution: on dwarf rootstocks with shallow root systems, replace deep digging with shallow cultivation.

5.2. Biological Balance

In a healthy orchard, pest numbers are regulated by their natural enemies—predatory insects, spiders, birds, parasitic wasps. The gardener's task is to create conditions favorable for beneficial organisms.

Attracting entomophages. Many beneficial insects (ladybugs, green lacewings, hoverflies, ichneumonid wasps) need nectar and pollen for feeding in the adult stage. Sowing flowering nectar plants between rows and at the orchard edges (dill, buckwheat, phacelia, mustard, clover, alfalfa, as well as wild umbellifers) attracts them. It is important that such plants bloom throughout the season. For example, phacelia blooms from June until frost and is an excellent honey plant, attracting many beneficial insects (Buckingham, 2010; Jackson, 2003).

Use of biopreparations. Instead of broad-spectrum chemical insecticides, use biological agents based on bacteria, fungi, or viruses that affect only specific pests. The most well-known:

• Bacillus thuringiensis (Bitoxibacillin, Lepidocide) — against lepidopteran caterpillars (codling moths, leafrollers, winter moth).
• Entomopathogenic nematodes (genera Steinernema, Heterorhabditis) — effective against chafer larvae, root weevils, and soil pests. They are applied to the soil as an aqueous suspension.
• ese products are safe for humans, beneficial insects, and do not leave toxic residues on fruit (Jackson, 2003; Buckingham, 2010).

Conservation of predatory mites. The predatory mite Typhlodromus pyri is effective against spider and red mites. Its populations are suppressed by broad-spectrum insecticides (especially pyrethroids). When using selective acaricides and mild insecticides, the predator can successfully control pest mite numbers (Jackson, 2003). For the amateur orchard, the recommendation is simple: avoid using strong chemicals unless absolutely necessary, and natural regulators will work for you.

Attracting birds. Many birds (tits, starlings, redstarts, nuthatches) feed on caterpillars, aphids, and beetles. Feeding birds in winter (but not during fruit ripening, to avoid habituating them to fruit) and putting up nest boxes in spring can increase their numbers. However, during fruit ripening, scare devices (shiny ribbons, pinwheels) may be needed to prevent bird damage to the crop.

Crop diversity and rotation. Monoculture favors the buildup of specialized pests. In a small orchard, try to combine different species and varieties, plant inter-rows with vegetables or cover crops, and leave areas with wild vegetation (shrubs, nettles)—this creates shelters for predators and reservoirs for beneficial entomofauna. When establishing a new orchard on the site of an old one, avoid replanting pears and apples in the same spot for at least 4–5 years due to the risk of replant diseases and buildup of specific pests (Jackson, 2003).

5.3. Monitoring

"You can only manage what you measure." Regular monitoring allows you to detect pests at an early stage, when local measures (collection, pruning) can prevent mass reproduction.

Visual inspections. From April to September, inspect trees regularly (at least once a week):

• Leaves: check undersides for aphids, egg masses, webbing (mites), mines (leaf miners), rolled leaves (leafrollers).
• Young shoots: look for wilting tips (sign of oriental fruit moth), bark cracks.
• Buds and flowers: pay attention to dry brown "caps" (blossom weevils), deformed ovaries (gall midges).
• Fruit: check for entry holes, frass, puncture marks (codling moths, weevils, birds).
• Trunks and scaffold branches: look for small holes, boring dust, swellings (bark beetles, flatheaded borers).

Pheromone traps. These are convenient tools to determine the start of flight of the codling moth, oriental fruit moth, and leafrollers. A trap with a pheromone attractant attracts males. Regular counts of captured moths (every 3–5 days) allow you to pinpoint the flight peak and the timing of the first treatment. Pheromone traps are sold in specialized stores and are easy to use (Rieger, 2010; Buckingham, 2010).

Monitoring weather conditions. Temperature and humidity determine pest development rates. For example, for the codling moth, the sum of effective temperatures (above 10 °C) from flight peak to larval emergence is about 100–150 degree-days. In warm climates, there may be two generations, requiring additional treatments. Knowing these patterns, you can adjust treatment timing without waiting for visible damage (Jackson, 2003).

Threshold values. To decide whether to treat, there is the concept of an economic injury level (EIL)—the pest population at which expected damage exceeds the cost of treatment. For amateur gardeners, these figures may be too academic, but the principle is clear: treat only when a sustained exceedance of the acceptable level is detected. For example, if more than 10 codling moth egg masses are found on 100 leaves or more than 5% of fruit show damage, treatment is required (Buckingham, 2010; Jackson, 2003).

Record keeping. Record the dates of first pest appearances, flight intensity, treatments applied, and weather conditions. This will help predict pest appearance next year and plan preventive measures more accurately.

Prevention summary:

• Sanitation — remove all sources of infection and overwintering: diseased branches, dead bark, fallen fruit, leaves.
• Biodiversity — attract natural enemies, use biopreparations, avoid monoculture.
• Monitoring — regularly inspect trees, use pheromone traps, account for weather.

These three pillars of prevention will allow you to maintain your orchard in a healthy state with minimal interventions. In the next, final chapter, we will look at specific protection methods—mechanical, biological, chemical—and their integration into a unified pear protection system.

6.1. Mechanical Protection Methods

Mechanical methods involve physical action against pests: collection, trapping, destruction, and creating barriers. They are labor-intensive but environmentally flawless and especially effective in small orchards.

Shaking beetles. Early spring, during bud swelling, at temperatures below 10 °C (beetles are sluggish), spread a sheet or tarp under the trees and vigorously shake branches with a padded pole. Collect and destroy fallen blossom weevils, weevils, and others. Repeat the procedure 2–3 times at 3–5 day intervals (Buckingham, 2010; Westwood, 1993). Why it works: at low temperatures, insects lose their ability to fly quickly and are easily dislodged.

Collecting caterpillars and egg masses. During the season, manually remove during inspections:

• Rolled leaves with leafroller caterpillars—cut them off and burn.
• Egg masses on leaves (many pests lay them on the underside)—scrape off or cut off with the leaf.
• Nests of winter moth and other caterpillars visible in the canopy.

Tree bands. As mentioned in the prevention chapter, corrugated cardboard or burlap bands placed on trunks in late summer collect codling moth caterpillars going into winter. Remove bands after leaf fall and burn them. With systematic use, this method can reduce codling moth numbers by 30–50% (Westwood, 1993). Why it works: caterpillars seek dark crevice-like shelters for cocooning; corrugated cardboard mimics peeling bark.

Collect fallen fruit. Daily collection of fallen fruit (especially during heavy drop) is one of the most effective practices. Do not leave fallen fruit in the orchard; bury it deeply (at least 50 cm) or burn it. This destroys codling moth larvae that have not yet left the fruit and interrupts their life cycle (Buckingham, 2010).

Prune damaged branches. When signs of bark beetles, flatheaded borers, or clearwing moths are found (branch dieback, boring dust), cut out infested branches immediately and burn them, taking at least 30–40 cm of healthy wood below the affected area. Seal cuts with garden paste or oil paint. Why it matters: removing infested wood eliminates the pest population, preventing its spread.

Barriers. Place mesh or plastic protective sleeves on young saplings (trunks) to protect against gnawing by hares and mice in winter. Against ants, which spread aphids, apply sticky bands (non-drying glue) on trunks—they prevent ants from climbing into the canopy. Why it works: a physical barrier breaks the pest's path to the food source.

Covers and repellents. Against birds damaging ripening fruit, use nets (draped over trees or individual branches), shiny repellents (old CDs, foil tape), and sonic devices. For wasp control, hang baited traps (sweet liquid with insecticide) away from fruit trees (Buckingham, 2010).

6.2. Biological Protection Methods

Biological methods use natural enemies of pests: predators, parasites, and insect pathogens. They are environmentally safe, leave no toxic residues, and can be highly effective when applied correctly.

Attracting and conserving entomophages. Predatory insects—ladybugs, green lacewings, hoverflies, predatory bugs—actively feed on aphids, psyllids, eggs, and young caterpillars. Parasitic wasps (ichneumonids, Trichogramma) lay eggs inside pest eggs or caterpillars, destroying them from within. To attract these helpers:

• Sow nectar plants between rows and at orchard edges (dill, phacelia, buckwheat, mustard, clover, alfalfa). They provide adult entomophages with nectar and pollen during periods when pests are scarce.
• Avoid broad-spectrum insecticides that kill beneficial insects. Choose selective products or biopreparations.
• Leave areas with natural vegetation (hedgerows, shrubs)—they serve as shelters for entomophages (Jackson, 2003; Buckingham, 2010).

Use of biopreparations. These are products based on living microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, viruses) or their metabolites that selectively target specific pest groups:

• Bacillus thuringiensis (Bitoxibacillin, Lepidocide) — a bacterial product, effective against lepidopteran caterpillars (codling moths, leafrollers, winter moth, leaf miners). A caterpillar that eats a treated leaf stops feeding and dies within 2–4 days. Safe for humans, bees, and entomophages. Requires repeated applications (every 7–10 days) due to short residual activity (Jackson, 2003; Buckingham, 2010).
• Entomopathogenic nematodes (genera Steinernema, Heterorhabditis) — microscopic worms that penetrate soil pest larvae (chafer beetles, weevils) and kill them. Apply to soil as an aqueous suspension in spring or autumn at temperatures above 15 °C. Safe for warm-blooded animals and earthworms.
• Products based on avermectins (e.g., Fitoverm, Akarin) — metabolites of the soil fungus Streptomyces avermitilis. Effective against mites, aphids, psyllids, and some caterpillars. Have a short pre-harvest interval (2–3 days) and are relatively safe for beneficial insects.

Pheromone disruption. In large orchards, pheromone dispensers are distributed evenly to create a high concentration of female pheromone in the air. Males cannot find females, mating does not occur, and the next generation does not appear. The method is effective against codling moth, oriental fruit moth, and leafrollers, but requires at least 1 ha to achieve effect and annual dispenser replacement (Rieger, 2010; Jackson, 2003). For small orchards, this method is usually unavailable due to high cost and large area requirement.

Trichogramma. These are microscopic wasps that parasitize eggs of codling moths, leafrollers, and other lepidopterans. In amateur orchards, Trichogramma can be purchased from specialized bio-laboratories and released into the orchard during pest egg-laying (1–2 releases per season). This is an effective and environmentally friendly method that requires precise timing (Buckingham, 2010).

6.3. Chemical Protection Methods

Chemical insecticides and acaricides are a last resort, used when pest populations are high and mechanical and biological methods are no longer sufficient. Proper use requires care, adherence to timing, and dosages.

Classification by mode of action:

• Contact — kill the pest upon direct contact with its body. Effective only at the time of application; do not protect new growth. Examples: pyrethroids (permethrin, cypermethrin, lambda-cyhalothrin).
• Stomach — absorbed into plant tissues and kill the pest when it eats the treated leaf or fruit. Examples: some organophosphates (malathion).
• Systemic — penetrate the plant's vascular system and distribute throughout all tissues, making the entire plant toxic to sap-sucking and chewing pests. Effective against aphids, psyllids, scale insects. Examples: neonicotinoids (imidacloprid, thiamethoxam), acetamiprid.
• Acaricides — specific products for mites (regular insecticides do not work on mites). Examples: clofentezine, bifenazate, propargite.
• Chitin synthesis inhibitors — disrupt chitin formation in larvae; they fail to molt and die. Examples: diflubenzuron, methoxyfenozide. Relatively safe for beneficial insects but act slowly.

Important application rules:

1. Observe treatment timing. Chemical products are most effective at the pest's most vulnerable stage:

• Against codling moth — 10–14 days after the peak of moth flight (determined by pheromone traps), when caterpillars begin emerging.
• Against aphids and psyllids — when first colonies appear in spring, before mass reproduction.
• Against mites — at the first signs of damage (May–June).
• Against blossom weevils — at the "green cone" stage (before bud opening).
• Against bark beetles — during beetle flight (spring–early summer).

2. Rotate products. Using the same insecticide several times per season leads to resistance. Rotate products from different chemical groups (e.g., pyrethroid → neonicotinoid → chitin synthesis inhibitor). This is a resistance prevention recommendation supported by numerous studies (Jackson, 2003; Rieger, 2010).

3. Observe the pre-harvest interval (PHI). This is the period from application to harvest, mandatory and indicated on each product label. Strictly follow it to ensure fruit is safe for consumption. PHI varies from 2–3 days (avermectins) to 30–40 days (some systemics). For early varieties and summer treatments, choose products with a short PHI (Buckingham, 2010).

4. Bee protection. Do not spray during bloom. If treatment is necessary, apply in the evening after sunset when bees are not flying. Choose products with low bee toxicity (hazard class III or IV). In many regions, treatment during bloom is prohibited by law (Buckingham, 2010; Jackson, 2003).

5. Prepare the working solution correctly. Use only the recommended dosages. Increasing the dose does not improve efficacy but increases phytotoxicity risk and residue buildup. Mix products only according to compatibility tables (Krivko, 2014). Do not mix chemical insecticides with biopreparations unless specified in the instructions.

6. Spray thoroughly. Treatment is effective only when all parts of the canopy are thoroughly wetted, especially the undersides of leaves where pests concentrate. Use fine-spray applicators and choose calm weather.

When are chemical treatments justified?

• When threshold pest numbers are detected (e.g., 5–10 codling moth egg masses per 100 leaves or more than 5% fruit showing damage).
• When aphids or psyllids appear en masse, threatening defoliation.
• In regions with two to three codling moth generations (southern regions), where chemical treatments are essential to obtain a quality harvest.
• In young orchards, where pest-induced weakening can delay fruiting by several years (Buckingham, 2010; Rieger, 2010).

6.4. Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a systematic approach that combines all available methods (mechanical, biological, chemical, and agronomic) into a unified strategy. The goal of IPM is not to eliminate pests entirely, which is impossible and harmful, but to maintain their numbers at economically acceptable levels with minimal chemical use (Westwood, 1993; Jackson, 2003).

Key principles of IPM for pear orchards:

1. Prevention is the foundation. Sanitary measures (pruning, bark cleaning, fallen fruit collection, whitewashing) are the first and main line of defense.

2. Regular monitoring. Weekly tree inspections and pheromone traps allow early detection of problems, rather than reacting to consequences.

3. Threshold values. Treat only when the economic injury level is exceeded. For codling moth, the threshold is more than 5–10 egg masses per 100 leaves or more than 3% damaged fruit (thresholds vary by region; consult local agronomists) (Jackson, 2003; Buckingham, 2010).

4. Prioritize mechanical and biological methods. Start with non-chemical measures (hand collection, tree bands, biopreparations). Chemical treatments are a last resort, used only when proven necessary.

5. Choose selective products. When chemical treatment is unavoidable, choose products with the least impact on beneficial entomofauna (e.g., chitin synthesis inhibitors, avermectins, biopreparations) and with a short pre-harvest interval.

6. Rotate and alternate. To avoid resistance, rotate products from year to year and within the season (no more than 2–3 consecutive applications of the same product).

7. Conserve beneficial organisms. Create conditions in and around the orchard for natural enemies (nectar plants, hedgerows, avoidance of broad-spectrum insecticides).

Sample integrated pear protection calendar:

Final conclusion. Protecting pear from pests is not a one-time action but systematic work throughout the year. The combination of prevention, regular observation, and timely, targeted interventions allows the gardener to obtain stable yields of quality fruit with minimal costs and minimal environmental impact. Remember: a healthy, well-cared-for tree is the best defense against all adversities.