Planting a garden

Autumn Planting

Autumn is considered the preferred planting time in most regions with a temperate climate. At this time, good conditions are created for the regeneration of root systems: root recovery occurs before shoot growth begins, which ensures good plant survival (Potapov et al., 2000).

Optimal timing for autumn planting:

• In central Russia – from late September to mid‑October
• In southern regions – from mid‑October to mid‑November
• It is important to complete planting 2–3 weeks before the onset of persistent frosts

Advantages of autumn planting:

• The root system has time to partially recover before winter
• In spring, plants start growing earlier and more vigorously
• The autumn planting window is longer than the spring one
• Fewer watering problems – natural precipitation promotes rooting

Risks of autumn planting:

• Possible freezing of seedlings in low‑snow and harsh winters
• Winter desiccation of shoots during strong winds
• Bark scorching during prolonged thaws followed by sharp cold spells (Yaroslavtsev, 2003)

In areas with stable snow cover and temperatures not below –30 °C, low‑growing trees and berry shrubs are planted in autumn. However, in the continental north‑eastern and eastern regions of Russia, winter desiccation can be a serious problem (Potapov et al., 2000).

Spring Planting

Spring planting is preferable in regions with severe winters, where winter desiccation and freezing of plants that did not root during autumn planting are common.

Optimal timing for spring planting:

• Early spring, as soon as the soil thaws and is ready for cultivation
• It is important to plant within 8–10 days after soil thawing
• Before the buds swell in the nursery

Important: Delaying spring planting sharply reduces survival and growth – the number of awakened buds decreases, shoot growth weakens, and sometimes only weak leaf rosettes form (Potapov et al., 2000).

Advantages of spring planting:

• No risk of winter damage to seedlings
• Plants immediately start growing under optimal conditions

Regional Considerations

The choice of planting time should take into account the climatic conditions of your specific region:

In southern regions with mild winters, autumn planting is carried out from the second decade of October to mid‑November. In areas with harsh winters, early‑spring planting is preferable (Potapov et al., 2000).

Key Points to Remember

1. Spring planting gives more time for site preparation but requires strict adherence to timing.

2. Autumn planting is better for root development but requires winter protection.

3. In any case, all preparatory work – layout, trench digging, or hole digging – is best done in autumn, even if planting is planned for spring (Potapov et al., 2000).

Practical advice: If you live in a region with unstable winters (frequent thaws alternating with frosts), choose spring planting. If winters are snowy and stable, autumn planting will give better results.

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Types of Planting Material

Several types of planting material are used for raspberries. Each has its own characteristics.

Standard lignified seedlings – the most common option. These are plants grown in a nursery for one to two years. They have a well‑developed root system and one or two annual shoots.

Green suckers – young shoots separated from the mother plant in summer when they reach 15–20 cm in height. This material is used to save money or when standard seedlings are scarce, but their survival rate is lower (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

Root cuttings – sections of roots 8–12 cm long and 2–4 mm thick. They are planted horizontally in furrows. This method produces a lot of planting material but requires more time for growing (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

Container‑grown seedlings (closed root system) – plants grown in containers, pots, or plastic bags. They can be planted throughout the growing season because the roots are not damaged during transplanting.

How to Choose a Quality Seedling

A good raspberry seedling is a plant ready for rapid growth and development. When selecting, pay attention to the following signs.

Special Considerations for Container‑Grown Seedlings

Container plants are convenient, but they have their nuances:

• Roots should be circling the root ball but not protruding excessively through the drainage holes (this indicates the plant has been “over‑held” in the container).
• The substrate in the container should be moist but not waterlogged.
• Leaves – green, without spots or signs of chlorosis.
• The plant should be stable in the container, not wobbling.

Where to Get Planting Material

The best source of planting material is specialised nurseries and garden centres. They guarantee varietal purity and plant health. Seedlings bought from roadside sellers or casual vendors are often infected with viruses, fungal diseases, or pests (Crandall, 1995). Viral diseases are especially dangerous because they cannot be cured – infected plants must be removed and replaced.

What to look for when buying:

• Presence of a label with the variety name and producer information.
• Seedlings should be stored in a cool place, roots in a moist environment (in packaging with wet peat or sawdust).
• The seller should have documents for the planting material.

What to Avoid

When choosing seedlings, avoid:

• Dried‑out plants. Even if roots appear alive, prolonged drying reduces survival (Potapov et al., 2000).
• Seedlings with signs of frost damage – dark spots on bark, cracking.
• Plants with crown gall – growths on roots.
• Seedlings taken from old, diseased, or neglected plantings. Such plants are almost certainly infected with viruses or diseases (Crandall, 1995).
• Overly large seedlings. In nurseries, raspberries are grown for one‑two years, so very large, “overgrown” plants should raise suspicion.

What to Do After Purchase

If you bought bare‑root seedlings and are not planting immediately, you need to store them properly:

• Heel in in a shady spot: dig a trench, lay the seedlings at an angle, and cover the roots with moist soil. Press the soil firmly around the roots.
• Water the heeled‑in seedlings so that the soil contacts the roots tightly.
• Protect from frost (if overwintering) – cover with dry leaves, spruce branches, or snow.

Before planting, it is useful to dip the roots in a clay slurry (clay mixed with water to the consistency of sour cream) – this improves root‑to‑soil contact (Kurennoi, 1985).

Brief Summary

• Roots are paramount. Quality seedlings have at least 3–4 main roots; they are moist, firm, and light‑coloured on the cut.
• Shoots should be mature, at least 6–8 mm thick, without damage or disease signs.
• Buy seedlings only from reliable nurseries. This protects against viral and fungal diseases.
• Container‑grown seedlings can be planted at any time, but they are more expensive and require careful handling.
• Do not let roots dry out – this is the main cause of poor survival.

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Choosing the Site: What Raspberries Need

Raspberries are light‑loving but not fussy. However, to get the best from them, the site must meet several requirements.

Sunlight. Raspberries need sun for most of the day. In shade, shoots stretch, berries become smaller, ripen later, and yield drops. This is especially critical for remontant varieties – with insufficient light, they simply do not have time to mature before frost (Yaroslavtsev, 2003). The site should be open but not windswept from all sides.

Wind protection. Winds, especially dry winter winds and desiccating summer winds, harm raspberries. They break shoots, increase moisture evaporation, and in winter promote freezing. The best location is along a fence or wall on the south or south‑west side. If the raspberry patch is in an open area, provide windbreaks: a hedge, wooden shields, netting, or a fence. The barrier should slow the wind but not create dense shade (Kurennoi, 1985).

Water regime. Raspberries like moisture but cannot tolerate stagnant water or waterlogged roots. Groundwater should be at least 1–1.5 m from the surface (Dankov, 2015). In low‑lying areas where cold air and rainwater accumulate, raspberries will suffer – roots suffocate and develop root rot (phytophthora). If the site is wet, plant raspberries on raised beds 20–30 cm high so the root system is above excess moisture.

Soil. Raspberries prefer loose, fertile soils with good drainage. Ideal are light to medium loams with pH 5.5–6.5 (Yaroslavtsev, 2003). On sandy soils, raspberries suffer from lack of moisture and nutrients; on heavy clays, from waterlogging and poor aeration. In any case, improve the soil before planting: add organic matter; on sandy soils add clay and compost; on clay soils add sand and peat.

Predecessors. The best predecessors for raspberries are green manures (lupine, mustard, phacelia), legumes, and vegetables except nightshades (tomatoes, potatoes, peppers, eggplants). Nightshades leave pathogens of verticillium wilt, which is dangerous for raspberries. Do not plant raspberries after raspberries – soil fatigue accumulates, and diseases and pests build up. Return raspberries to the same place no earlier than after 2–4 years (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

Planting Layout: Bush or Row (Strip) Method

There are two main approaches to placing raspberries – bush and row (strip) methods. The choice depends on your goals, plot size, and available labour.

Bush method. Plants are set as individual bushes at considerable distances – 1×1 m or even 1.8×1.8 m (Yaroslavtsev, 2003). Each bush is formed separately, leaving 4–6 fruiting canes and 4–6 replacement shoots. Suckers appearing between bushes are removed. Advantages: bushes are well ventilated, less disease‑prone, easy for hand care, each berry gets sun. Disadvantages: land is used less efficiently, yield per unit area is lower than with row planting.

Row (strip) method. Plants are planted in a row, and over time the row becomes a continuous strip of canes and shoots. Seedlings are placed in the row 30–70 cm apart, with 1.5–2.5 m between rows for access and mechanised cultivation. This method gives higher yields per area, is convenient for mechanisation, but requires more careful control of sucker spread and crowding (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

Which method to choose? For a small garden plot with hand care, both bush and row methods work. If you plan to harvest many berries (for sale or processing), row planting is better. If you value ease of picking and plant health, the bush method is preferable, especially on wet sites where ventilation is important.

Spacing Between Plants and Rows

The specific distances depend on the shoot‑forming ability of the variety. This is the plant’s capacity to produce replacement shoots and root suckers. Varieties with high shoot‑forming ability fill the row faster and are planted more sparsely. Those with low ability are planted more densely to build the row sooner.

Table adapted from Yaroslavtsev (2003)

Important note: For the bush method, distances between bushes should be at least 1–1.2 m, and between rows 1.5–2 m. In the row method, the row can be formed at a density of 10–12 canes per metre of row at fruiting age (Yaroslavtsev, 2003). Therefore, in the planting year, plant more densely (30–50 cm) so that by the third year you achieve the desired density.

Row Orientation

Rows of raspberries are best oriented north‑to‑south. With this alignment, plants receive uniform illumination throughout the day – the sun lights both sides of the row alternately. This is especially important for row plantings where bushes form a “green wall”. With east‑west orientation, one side of the row is constantly shaded, reducing yield and berry quality (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

If the site has a slope, orient rows across the slope (along the contour lines). This prevents soil erosion and better retains moisture. On flat sites, strict compass orientation is not mandatory, but rows should be parallel for ease of cultivation.

What to Do with the Aisles

Between rows, leave enough space for your comfort. For hand work, the minimum aisle width is 1.2–1.5 m. If you plan to use a motor‑cultivator or mini‑tractor, leave 1.8–2.5 m so that machinery can pass freely (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

Aisles need not be left empty. You can:

• Keep them as black fallow – regularly cultivate and remove weeds. This conserves moisture and nutrients for the raspberries.
• Sow grass – periodically mow and leave the clippings as mulch. Grass suppresses weeds and improves soil structure.
• Grow green manures (mustard, phacelia) in the first 1–2 years before the raspberries have filled out (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

Important: Young suckers that appear in the aisles should be regularly removed so that the row does not spread and become overgrown. If you neglect this, after a few years the patch will turn into impenetrable thickets – yield will drop and picking will become impossible.

Limiting Root Spread

The raspberry root system is aggressive – it sends out suckers far beyond the row. If you do not want the raspberry patch to “invade” neighbouring beds, plan for barriers.

The simplest and most reliable method is to bury slate, sheet metal, roofing felt, or thick plastic film along the edges of the row to a depth of 50–60 cm, with 10–15 cm above ground (Yaroslavtsev, 2003). This mechanically blocks the roots. Install such barriers before planting, when preparing the trench.

If you plant raspberries along a fence, you can sink the barrier right next to the foundation or along the property line.

Laying Out the Site Before Planting

Before digging holes or trenches, mark out the area. Do this:

1. Determine the row direction (north–south or across the slope).

2. Measure the required distance from the edge (usually 70–100 cm from the fence or boundary).

3. Stretch a string along the first row.

4. Mark planting spots at the chosen within‑row spacing. Use pegs or simply make marks.

5. Mark all rows parallel to the first with the chosen between‑row spacing.

For many rows, use a marking cord and tape measure. For large plantings (farm‑scale), markers or special marking machines are used (Kurennoi, 1985).

Other Considerations

• Row length. In home gardens, rows are usually 5–10 m. Rows longer than 20–30 m are inconvenient for care and picking. If space allows, make several short rows separated by paths.
• Provision for trellis. Think ahead where and how you will install supports. Spacing between posts along the row – 5–8 m; end posts should be stronger with braces (Yaroslavtsev, 2003). A trellis greatly facilitates care and increases yield, so plan it from the start.
• Access for wheelbarrows or carts. If you will apply fertilisers or transport harvest, leave a through passage between rows or at the end of the patch.
• Crop rotation. If you practise “mobile” plantings, allow space to shift rows by 1–1.5 m sideways after several years (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

Brief Summary

• The site should be sunny, wind‑protected, with deep groundwater (at least 1–1.5 m).
• Spacings depend on the variety – the stronger the shoot‑forming ability, the wider the spacing.
• Orient rows north–south for uniform lighting.
• Leave aisles at least 1.2 m, for machinery 1.8–2.5 m.
• Plan root barriers (buried slate or other material) along row edges.
• Think about the trellis system in advance – it is almost always needed, especially for tall, high‑yielding varieties.

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Understanding Raspberry Roots

To prepare the planting site, you need to picture the raspberry root system. The bulk of raspberry roots are in the topsoil – down to 30 cm, with maximum concentration at 10–20 cm depth and within a radius of 30–60 cm from the bush centre (Dankov, 2015). This means raspberries take most of their nutrients and water from the upper, most fertile layer. But roots can go deeper – up to 1.5 m in search of water, especially in loose soils.

Hence the main tasks when preparing the planting site:

1. Create a loose, fertile layer 30–40 cm deep where the main roots will develop.

2. Provide a reserve of nutrients for the first 2–3 years of growth.

3. Ensure good drainage – roots must not sit in water.

4. Remove weeds, especially perennial rhizomatous ones (couch grass, sow thistle), which will compete with raspberries.

Holes or Trenches: Which to Choose

Raspberries can be planted in individual holes or in trenches (furrows). The choice depends on the planting method, number of seedlings, and your convenience.

Holes – the classic option for bush planting where bushes grow separately. Hole size: depth 40–50 cm, width 40–60 cm. Holes are convenient for small plots, but they take more time per spot.

Trenches (furrows) – the best choice for row planting, where plants are set in a line. Dig a trench along the entire row, 40–50 cm deep and 50–70 cm wide (at the top edge) (Yaroslavtsev, 2003). A trench allows even distribution of fertilisers along the row, uniform soil preparation, and, importantly, creation of root barriers.

If you are planting many plants (e.g., 10–20 seedlings or more), the trench method saves time and effort.

When to Start Preparation

Ideally, 2–4 weeks before planting – or even better, 2–3 months ahead. The soil needs time to settle, especially if you have deep‑dug or added a lot of organic matter. If you prepare the site immediately before planting, the soil will settle later, and the root collar may end up deeper than intended – which is harmful for raspberries.

Best of all, prepare planting spots in advance, in autumn, even if planting is planned for spring. Over winter, the soil will “mature”, fertilisers will disperse, and in spring you only need to plant.

Depth and Width: General Approach

The planting hole or trench must be spacious enough for the roots. A seedling with spread roots should fit freely; roots should not be bent upward or tangled.

Minimum dimensions:

If the soil is heavy clay, or you are preparing a site from scratch, you can make holes and trenches deeper – up to 60–70 cm – to improve drainage and create a looser layer.

Improving the Soil at the Bottom of the Trench

The soil at the bottom of the trench is often compacted, especially on long‑untilled plots. Loosen it with a spade (20–25 cm) so roots can penetrate deeply. If there is a “plough pan” – a compacted layer at 20–30 cm – break it up with a fork or crowbar (Kurennoi, 1985).

On heavy clay soils where water stagnates, place a drainage layer at the bottom of the trench – 8–10 cm of crushed stone, broken brick, or expanded clay, with a thin layer of sand (5–8 cm) on top (Yaroslavtsev, 2003). This ensures excess water drains away and prevents root rot.

On sandy soils that dry out quickly, the opposite is needed. Here, lay a moisture‑retaining layer at the bottom: loam (5–8 cm thick) and a layer of peat (10–12 cm) (Yaroslavtsev, 2003). This will help retain moisture in the root zone, especially during dry periods.

Fertilisers: What and How Much to Apply

Raspberries are demanding in fertility. Over 8–10 years, they remove a lot of nutrients from the soil, and the best way to supply them is to build a reserve before planting. Organic and mineral fertilisers are placed in planting holes or trenches and thoroughly mixed with the soil.

Organic fertilisers – the main source of nutrition for raspberries. They improve soil structure, increase water‑holding capacity, and feed beneficial microorganisms. Per 1 m² of planting area (hole or trench) add:

• Well‑rotted manure or compost – 8–12 kg/m² (Yaroslavtsev, 2003)
• Or compost – 10–15 kg/m²

Important: Fresh manure must not be applied directly under the roots – it can burn them. Only well‑rotted manure (2–3 years old).

Mineral fertilisers complement the organics. Their rates depend on your soil fertility.

Table adapted from Yaroslavtsev (2003)

Nitrogen fertilisers are not applied at planting! Nitrogen stimulates shoot growth but hinders rooting. If applied in autumn, plants may start growing and fail to prepare for winter. In spring planting, nitrogen is also not needed – the plant first needs to grow roots, not shoots. Nitrogen fertilisers are given only 2–4 weeks after planting, once plants have rooted.

How to mix correctly. Apply fertilisers to the bottom of the hole or the lower part of the trench, thoroughly mixing with the soil (the top fertile layer). Do not dump fertilisers in a concentrated layer – they should be evenly distributed in the soil so that roots meet them gradually as they grow.

Dealing with Soil Acidity

Raspberries prefer slightly acidic soils with pH 5.5–6.5 (Yaroslavtsev, 2003). If the soil is more acidic (pH below 5.0), raspberries will absorb nutrients less well, especially phosphorus and calcium, and will be more prone to disease.

If you do not know your soil pH, get a test. It is simple: dig several small holes on the site (5–10), cut a thin slice of soil from each vertical wall, mix the samples, and send to an agrochemical laboratory (or use a quick test kit). If pH is below 5.5, apply lime one month before planting:

• For light soils – 200–300 g of dolomite flour per 1 m²
• For heavy soils – 400–500 g per 1 m²

Important: Lime and fertilisers are applied at different times, because calcium (lime) binds phosphorus, making it unavailable to plants. First apply lime, dig it in, and after 2–3 weeks apply fertilisers.

Filling the Trench: Step‑by‑Step

Proper filling is as important as digging. Here is a step‑by‑step guide.

1. Remove soil from the trench, separating it into two parts: the top fertile layer (15–20 cm) and the lower layer (the rest). When filling, use the top layer first – it is most fertile.

2. At the bottom (if needed) place drainage or moisture‑retaining material.

3. Return the top fertile soil to the trench to about 2/3 of its depth, thoroughly mixing it with the fertilisers.

4. Compact the soil with your foot or lightly pat with a spade to prevent excessive settling after planting.

5. Water the trench so the soil settles and compacts naturally.

6. Leave the prepared trench for 2–4 weeks to settle. During this time, the soil will settle, and you can accurately determine the final planting depth.

When planting, set roots 2–3 cm deeper than the level at which they grew in the nursery (Yaroslavtsev, 2003). Use the old soil mark on the stem (usually visible) or the root collar as a guide.

Mulching and Black Plastic Film

Immediately after planting (or even before), mulch the soil surface around the plants. This accomplishes several tasks:

• Retains soil moisture
• Suppresses weed growth
• Prevents surface crust formation
• Protects roots from overheating and overcooling

Mulch options for raspberries:

• Black polyethylene film – effectively suppresses weeds and suckers between bushes. Lay the film along the row, make cross‑shaped cuts over each seedling, and pull the shoots through. Weigh down the edges with soil (Yaroslavtsev, 2003). However, film does not let water through, so water through the cuts.
• Opaque mulch paper – an eco‑friendly alternative that lets water through.
• Organic mulch – compost, rotted sawdust, straw, mown grass – a layer 5–10 cm. Organics feed the plants, improve soil, but weeds may penetrate a thin layer.
• Mown green manures – green mass of legumes or grasses – an excellent option if you have sown aisles with grasses.

Mulching is especially important in the first year after planting, when the root system is still weak and plants are sensitive to drying out (Pritts & Hanson, 2013).

If the Soil Is Heavily Infested with Perennial Weeds

If the site has a lot of couch grass, sow thistle, or other rhizomatous weeds, remove them before planting. You can do this mechanically – carefully picking out roots during digging – or with herbicides, but for the home garden, the simpler and safer method is shading: cover the area with black plastic film for 2–3 months a year before planting. Weeds will die without light, and roots will rot in the soil.

Checklist: Is the Site Ready for Planting?

Before you start planting, ask yourself:

• Was the trench or hole dug 2–4 weeks before planting?
• Is drainage provided at the bottom (on heavy soils) or a moisture‑retaining layer (on sandy soils)?
• Has organic matter been added (8–12 kg/m² of manure or compost)?
• Have mineral fertilisers been added (phosphorus and potassium, but not nitrogen)?
• Are the fertilisers thoroughly mixed with the soil?
• Has the soil been watered, compacted, and settled?
• If soil is acidic, was liming done 2–3 weeks before fertiliser application?
• Is mulch ready to cover the soil after planting?
• Are root barriers installed (if planned)?

If you answered “yes” to all, your planting site is ready to receive seedlings.

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Planting Depth: The Root Collar Is Your Main Guide

The most important rule when planting raspberries is not to bury or expose the root collar. The root collar is the transition zone between roots and stem. It should be at soil level or buried only 2–3 cm deep (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

Why this is so important. Raspberry roots originate at the base of the shoot. If planted too shallow, the root collar will be above the soil surface – roots will dry out, the plant will be poorly anchored, and will suffer from lack of moisture and frost (Potapov et al., 2000).

If planted too deep – the root collar will be under a layer of soil. On heavy soils, this leads to oxygen deficiency for the roots; they will suffocate and rot. Moreover, on the buried part of the stem, additional (adventitious) roots may form, but they are usually weak and do not replace the main roots, merely sapping the plant’s energy (Kurennoi, 1985).

Guides for correct depth:

• When inspecting the seedling, note the soil mark on the stem – this is the level at which it grew in the nursery. Plant it to that same depth (Pozdnyakov et al., 2012).
• If the mark is not visible, use the root collar – where roots end and stem begins.
• When planting, the root collar should be 2–3 cm above the soil surface – this is acceptable and even desirable for raspberries (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

What if the soil settles? After watering and natural compaction, the soil will settle, and the root collar may end up deeper than planned. Therefore, when planting, leave the root collar 2–3 cm above the soil surface – after settling it will be at the correct depth (Potapov et al., 2000). If you prepared the trench in advance and watered it, the soil has already settled – then plant “at level”.

Root Position: Spread Them, Do Not Bend

Raspberry roots should be spread out in the planting hole or trench. They should not be bent upward, coiled, or bunched.

Why it matters. Roots grow downward and outward in search of moisture and nutrients. If a root is bent upward, it cannot function properly – it will absorb water and nutrients poorly, and its tip may die off. As a result, the plant will develop weakly and enter fruiting later (Potapov et al., 2000). Spread‑out roots, on the contrary, quickly colonise the surrounding soil, forming a powerful root system.

How to spread roots correctly:

• Make a small mound of loose soil in the hole or trench.
• Place the seedling on top of the mound.
• Gently spread all roots over the sides of the mound so they radiate from the centre in all directions.
• Ensure roots are not bent upward – they should lie along the slopes of the mound, directed downward and sideways (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

If the seedling has very long roots (more than 20–25 cm), you can trim them slightly with secateurs – this is even beneficial, as it stimulates formation of new, more branched roots (Potapov et al., 2000). Make slanting cuts to increase the area for callus formation (out of which new roots develop).

Backfilling: How Not to Damage Roots

Once the roots are spread, backfilling begins. This is not simply “filling the hole” but a critical operation affecting root‑soil contact.

Backfilling steps:

1. Cover the roots with the top fertile soil (the one you set aside when digging). If fertilisers were added earlier and mixed with soil, they are already in this mass. If not, add them now, thoroughly mixing with the backfill soil (but remember: no nitrogen at planting!).

2. Shake the seedling while backfilling, slightly lifting it. This helps fine soil particles to fall between the roots, fill all voids, and ensures tight root‑soil contact (Yaroslavtsev, 2003; Potapov et al., 2000).

3. Compact the soil around the roots by hand or with your foot (carefully, without injuring the stem). The soil should be firm against the roots, with no air pockets. If voids remain, roots will dry out and establish poorly.

4. Continue backfilling until the root collar is 2–3 cm above the surface (if planting in a freshly dug hole) or at surface level (if soil has settled). Do not cover the seedling above the root collar – that leads to burial.

5. Make a watering basin – a small depression around the seedling 30–40 cm in diameter. This will help water stay in the root zone during the first irrigation (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

Watering After Planting: Mandatory and Generous

The first watering is not just about wetting – it is essential for seedling survival. Even if the soil is moist from rain, planting damages roots and temporarily reduces their ability to absorb water. Watering helps:

• Settle soil around roots, eliminating air pockets.
• Provide moisture to roots during the critical period when they are not yet fully functioning.
• Reduce transplant shock.

Watering rate: 1–2 buckets (10–20 L) per seedling or per linear metre of trench (Yaroslavtsev, 2003). Water slowly so it soaks in rather than running off. Repeat watering after 2–3 days if the weather is dry, and thereafter as needed – keeping the root‑zone soil constantly moist but not waterlogged (Potapov et al., 2000).

Optimal moisture. In the first month after planting, the soil should be moist to a depth of 20–30 cm. Check: if the top 5–10 cm has dried, it is time to water. Water more often in hot weather, less often in cool weather. The key is not to allow drying out, but also not to overwater.

Cold water. Do not use icy water from a well or borehole – it shocks the roots. Let the water stand and warm to air temperature for several hours. Use water from a barrel warmed by the sun.

Mulching: Protection for the Entire Season

After the first watering, when the water has soaked in, mulch the soil surface around the seedling. This is not a decorative touch, but a necessary element of care, especially in the first year.

Why mulch:

• Retains soil moisture, reducing evaporation.
• Prevents surface crust formation.
• Suppresses weed growth.
• Protects roots from overheating in summer and freezing in winter.
• Gradually decomposes, providing extra nutrition.
• Improves soil structure on organic soils.

Mulch materials for raspberries (Yaroslavtsev, 2003):

Layer thickness: for organic materials – 5–10 cm; for film and paper – one layer. Lay mulch around the seedling, leaving a small gap (2–3 cm) near the stem to avoid bark rot.

Important: If you use fresh sawdust or straw, they consume nitrogen from the soil during decomposition. To avoid nitrogen starvation, feed raspberries with nitrogen fertiliser 2–3 weeks after planting (e.g., urea – 10–15 g per 1 m²) (Potapov et al., 2000).

Special Considerations for Container‑Grown Seedlings

Container seedlings are becoming increasingly popular. Their main advantage is that roots are not damaged during transplanting, so survival is nearly 100 %. However, they have their own rules.

How to plant container‑grown raspberries (Pritts & Hanson, 2013):

1. A few hours before planting, water the seedling well in its container – the root ball should be moist.

2. Carefully remove the plant from the container. If roots have circled the ball and protrude from drainage holes, that is normal. If roots are badly tangled and coiled, gently tease them out or make a few vertical cuts on the ball to stimulate new root growth outward.

3. The planting hole should be slightly wider and deeper than the root ball.

4. Place the ball in the hole so that the top surface of the ball is 2–3 cm above the soil level (after settling it will be at the right depth).

5. Fill the space around the ball with loose soil, firm it, and water.

6. Mulch as for bare‑root seedlings.

Container plants can be planted throughout the growing season – from spring to autumn, but spring or autumn are still best (Pritts & Hanson, 2013). In hot summer, planting is possible but requires more frequent watering and shading.

If You Are Planting Root Cuttings

Root cuttings are sections of roots 8–12 cm long and 2–4 mm thick. Plant them horizontally in furrows 5–10 cm deep, placing them in a chain on the trench floor (Yaroslavtsev, 2003). Cover with loose fertile soil to a depth of 5–6 cm. Water and mulch as for ordinary seedlings. Shoots from root cuttings appear in 2–4 weeks. This method is economical but takes longer to produce full‑sized bushes.

Checklist: Did You Plant Correctly?

Before moving on to aftercare, go through this list:

• Root collar is 2–3 cm above soil level (if planting in fresh hole) or at level (in settled soil).
• Roots are spread, not bent upward or tangled.
• Soil around roots is firmly compacted, with no air voids.
• Seedling was watered with 1–2 buckets (10–20 L) of water.
• Watering basin is formed – water does not run away.
• Soil surface is mulched with 5–10 cm layer (or covered with film).
• Mulch does not touch the stem (2–3 cm gap left).
• If seedling is tall or in a windy area – it is tied to a stake for stability (Pozdnyakov et al., 2012).

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First Pruning: Why and How

Right after planting, the seedling must be pruned. This may seem harsh – just planted, and already cutting. But it is a necessary technique that helps the plant establish.

Why prune after planting. During transplanting, the root system is severely damaged. It loses a significant part of its absorbing rootlets and temporarily cannot supply the above‑ground part with water and nutrients. If all shoots are left, they will lose moisture through leaves and buds, and the plant may die of dehydration before rooting. Pruning reduces the transpiring surface and helps balance the root volume and top growth (Potapov et al., 2000). This gives the plant a chance to direct all its energy toward root recovery.

How to prune correctly:

• For standard bare‑root raspberry seedlings, shorten shoots to 15–25 cm above soil level (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).
• Leave 2–4 well‑developed buds per shoot.
• If the seedling has several shoots, leave 1–2 of the strongest, remove the rest at the base.
• Make the cut with secateurs just above a bud, at a slight angle, so water runs off and does not stagnate on the cut.

What about container‑grown seedlings? They are pruned less severely because roots are not damaged. Removing 5–10 cm from the top to stimulate branching, or leaving it if shoots are not too tall, is sufficient (Pritts & Hanson, 2013).

When to prune. Ideally, immediately after planting, on the same day. If you cannot, do it the next day, but do not delay. The sooner you prune, the less moisture the seedling loses.

Important note: If planting in autumn, it is better to postpone pruning until spring. The remaining shoots trap snow in winter and protect the root system from frost (Yaroslavtsev, 2003). In spring, before bud break, shorten shoots to the required height. The exception is if shoots are very long and may break from wind or snow – then shorten them in autumn to 40–50 cm.

First Watering and Watering in the First Season

The first watering is the most important. Even if the soil is moist, water the planting site generously after planting so that the soil settles tightly around the roots and air pockets are eliminated (Yaroslavtsev, 2003). Water also calms the roots after stress and initiates rooting processes.

Watering rates:

• Immediately after planting – 1–2 buckets (10–20 L) per seedling or per linear metre of trench.
• In the first month – every 3–5 days in dry weather, keeping the root‑zone soil constantly moist to 20–30 cm depth.
• Thereafter – as the soil dries, roughly once a week in the absence of rain.

How to check if watering is needed. Take a handful of soil from 10–15 cm depth. If it is dry and crumbles in your hand – water. If moist and forms a ball – no watering required.

Water should be warm. Do not use ice‑cold water from a well – it stresses the roots. Let the water stand and warm in the sun for several hours.

How to water. Water not from above over the leaves, but directly into the basin around the seedling so water reaches the roots. If you have mulched, push the mulch aside before watering, then replace it (Pritts & Hanson, 2013).

Reducing watering. At the end of summer – early autumn, reduce watering so shoots can mature and prepare for winter. If autumn is dry, carry out a moisture‑recharging watering in late September – early October (10–15 L per bush) to improve winter survival.

Protection from Pests and Diseases

Young seedlings are tempting prey for pests and diseases. Their tissues are tender, and defensive mechanisms are still weak.

Raspberry cane midge (raspberry gall midge) – one of the most dangerous pests. It lays eggs at the base of young shoots. Larvae penetrate inside and cause wilting of shoot tips (Yaroslavtsev, 2003). If you notice shoot tips drooping and drying, cut them off 5–10 cm below the wilt point and destroy – the larva is almost certainly inside.

Raspberry beetle – can damage leaves and buds. At the budding stage, you can use insecticidal plant infusions (wormwood, tansy), and in severe infestations, authorised preparations, strictly following the instructions.

Aphids – dangerous not so much by sap‑sucking as by transmitting viral diseases. If aphids are found, treat plants with soap solution or garlic infusion. In severe cases, use insecticides (Potapov et al., 2000).

Purple blotch (Didymella) – a fungal disease affecting shoots, showing as purple spots on stems. Varieties with high shoot‑forming ability are more susceptible (Yaroslavtsev, 2003). For prevention, avoid crowding, observe spacing, and remove diseased shoots. In spring, treat with 1–2 % Bordeaux mixture before bud break.

Important: In the first year, especially before fruiting, do not overuse chemicals. Use preventive measures – keep the raspberry patch clean, regularly inspect plants, remove diseased and damaged parts. A healthy seedling with a strong root system will better resist diseases.

Protection from Frost

Spring frosts are a real threat to young seedlings. Especially dangerous are frosts when plants have already started growing. Buds, flowers, and young leaves can die at –1…–3 °C (Kurennoi, 1985).

How to protect young raspberries from frost:

• Mulching. A layer of mulch (5–10 cm) protects roots from overcooling and slows soil thawing, delaying the start of growth.
• Covering. On small plots, cover young plants overnight with non‑woven fabric (spunbond, lutrasil) or plastic film. Remove the cover during the day.
• Smoking. In professional orchards, smoke screens are used. On your plot, you can place heaps of damp straw or sawdust and ignite them at night – smoke traps heat near the ground. But this method requires caution and fire safety rules.
• Watering. On the evening before a frost, water the soil around plants generously. Moist soil holds heat better, and the air temperature near the surface can be 1–2 °C higher than on dry soil.

Tying to Supports

If you have not yet installed supports for raspberries, do it immediately after planting. Young seedlings, especially tall ones, need support.

Why tie up: It protects plants from wind, which can break an unrooted plant or damage roots by rocking them. Tied plants grow vertically, do not shade each other, and are less disease‑prone.

How to tie (Yaroslavtsev, 2003):

• Drive a stake 50–80 cm tall next to the seedling (on the south side, to avoid shading).
• Tie the seedling to the stake with soft material (twine, cloth tape, special garden tape) in a “figure‑eight” – loop around the seedling, then around the stake, then tie. Do not tighten too much to avoid bark injury.
• As shoots grow, tie them to supports at heights of 0.5 m, 1 m, and 1.5 m.

If you installed a trellis right away, tie the seedlings to it. For single bushes, a single stake is enough.

Special Care for Autumn Planting

In autumn, after‑planting care has its own nuances. The main task is to help the seedling survive the first winter.

1. Generous watering. Even if autumn is rainy, give a good moisture‑recharging watering before frost (10–15 L per bush). Wet soil freezes more slowly.

2. Mulching. The mulch layer should be especially thick (up to 15 cm) to protect roots from freezing.

3. Bending shoots. For varieties that may freeze, bend shoots to the ground and pin them at 20–30 cm height so they are covered by snow. Do this before persistent frosts, while shoots are still flexible (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

4. Snow retention. If snow is scarce, add snow to the raspberry patch. Snow cover is the best protection against frost.

Special Care for Spring Planting

In spring, the main enemies of young plants are lack of moisture and return frosts.

1. Regular watering. In spring and early summer (especially in dry weather), water young seedlings every 3–5 days. The root system is still weak, and drying out is fatal (Pritts & Hanson, 2013).

2. Shading. If spring is sunny and hot, young plants (especially container‑grown) may suffer leaf scorch. Shade them for 2–3 weeks with non‑woven fabric or branches.

3. Weed control. In early growth, weeds grow quickly and can smother young seedlings. Regularly weed the raspberry patch or use mulch.

Checklist: Have You Done Everything?

The first month after planting is the most critical. Go through this list 1–2 weeks after planting:

• Seedlings are pruned to 15–25 cm (or in spring if planted in autumn).
• Watering is regular, root‑zone soil is moist to 20–30 cm depth.
• Surface is mulched (layer 5–10 cm).
• Weeds in the patch are removed.
• Young shoots are protected from pests (inspection, removal of damaged tips).
• If frost is threatened, protective measures are taken.
• Seedlings are tied to supports.

Summary

Care immediately after planting is not difficult, but it is very important. Proper watering, timely pruning, and pest protection help the plant root quickly and start growing. Remember, your main goal in the first season is not to get a crop, but to grow a strong, healthy plant that will give you berries for many years.

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Mistake 1. Planting in Shade or in a Windy Spot

Raspberries are light‑loving. In shade, they become leggy, shoots thin and weak, berries smaller, yield lower, and remontant varieties fail to mature before frost (Yaroslavtsev, 2003). Windy places increase moisture evaporation, promote winter shoot desiccation, and break canes in summer.

How to avoid: Choose the sunniest and most sheltered spot. Best – the south or south‑west side of the property, along a fence or building wall (Potapov et al., 2000). If the patch is in the open, plan windbreaks – hedges or screens.

Mistake 2. Planting in a Low Area or Where Groundwater Is Close

Raspberries like moisture but cannot tolerate standing water. In low areas where cold air and water accumulate, roots suffocate, root rots (phytophthora) develop, plants weaken and die (Dankov, 2015). Groundwater should be at least 1–1.5 m from the surface (Potapov et al., 2000).

How to avoid: Choose level sites or gentle slopes (up to 5°) with good air drainage. On wet sites, make raised beds 20–30 cm high so roots are above excess moisture (Pritts & Hanson, 2013). You can also install drainage – ditches or drainage pipes.

Mistake 3. Planting After Bad Predecessors

Nightshade crops (potatoes, tomatoes, peppers, eggplants) leave soil‑borne pathogens of verticillium wilt and other diseases dangerous to raspberries (Potapov et al., 2000). Raspberries themselves are also a bad predecessor – diseases, pests, and toxic root exudates (“soil fatigue”) accumulate.

How to avoid: Plant raspberries after green manures (lupin, mustard, phacelia), legumes, or vegetables (except nightshades). Return raspberries to the same site no sooner than after 2–4 years, preferably 5–6 years (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

Mistake 4. Using Low‑Quality Planting Material

Dried‑out seedlings, with damaged roots or disease signs, establish poorly or not at all. Viruses and systemic infections, which cannot be cured, are transmitted with planting material and can destroy the whole patch (Crandall, 1995).

How to avoid: Buy seedlings only from nurseries or reliable suppliers. Check roots – they should be moist, firm, light‑coloured on cut, with many fine absorbing rootlets. Shoots should have no spots, cracks, or swellings. Reject seedlings with dried roots, even if cheap (Potapov et al., 2000).

Mistake 5. Incorrect Planting Depth

If planted too shallow, the root collar dries out, roots suffer from lack of moisture and frost, and the plant is poorly anchored. If too deep, roots suffocate, the plant may rot, and weak adventitious roots form on the buried stem, sapping energy from the main roots (Potapov et al., 2000; Kurennoi, 1985).

How to avoid: Use the root collar – the transition zone between roots and stem – as a guide. It should be 2–3 cm above soil level when planting in a fresh hole (after settling it will be at the right depth). In settled soil, plant “at level”. Never cover the root collar with soil (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

Mistake 6. Bending Roots Upward or Tangling Them

If roots are not spread but bent upward or bunched, they cannot absorb water and nutrients properly. Root tips may die, and the plant will be sick for a long time (Potapov et al., 2000).

How to avoid: When planting, make a mound in the hole, place the seedling on it, and carefully spread all roots over the sides, pointing downward and outward. If roots are too long, trim them with secateurs. During backfilling, shake the seedling so that soil fills all gaps between roots (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

Mistake 7. Applying Nitrogen Fertilisers at Planting

Nitrogen stimulates shoot growth, but at planting time this is harmful – the plant should be rooting, not growing upward. Nitrogen interferes with new root formation and can burn young roots (Kurennoi, 1985). Moreover, autumn planting with nitrogen promotes shoot growth that will not have time to prepare for winter.

How to avoid: At planting, apply only phosphorus and potassium fertilisers (superphosphate, potassium sulphate). Give nitrogen fertilisers 2–4 weeks after planting, when plants have started rooting, but in moderate doses. If planting in spring, the first nitrogen feed should be no earlier than 3–4 weeks after planting (Potapov et al., 2000).

Mistake 8. Insufficient Watering After Planting

Even if the soil is moist, generous watering is needed after planting – it settles the soil, removes air pockets, and provides water to the roots at the most critical moment. In the first month after planting, roots are not yet fully functional, and drying out is fatal (Pritts & Hanson, 2013).

How to avoid: Immediately after planting, pour at least 1–2 buckets (10–20 L) per seedling. In the first month, keep the soil moist to 20–30 cm depth – water every 3–5 days in dry weather. Always mulch to reduce evaporation (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

Mistake 9. No Pruning After Planting

An unpruned seedling with many buds and leaves will lose too much moisture, and roots cannot supply it – the plant may die of dehydration. This mistake is especially dangerous in spring planting (Potapov et al., 2000).

How to avoid: Right after planting, cut shoots to 15–25 cm, leaving 2–4 buds each. If you planted in autumn, postpone pruning until spring (before bud break), but shorten overly long shoots to 40–50 cm in autumn so they do not break under snow (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

Mistake 10. Ignoring Mulching

Unmulched soil dries quickly, crusts form, and weeds smother young plants. This slows rooting and weakens seedlings (Pritts & Hanson, 2013).

How to avoid: Immediately after planting, mulch the soil with 5–10 cm of organic material (compost, manure, sawdust, straw) or use black film/mulch paper. Keep mulch away from the stem – leave a 2–3 cm gap (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

Mistake 11. Choosing the Wrong Variety for Your Region

Varieties not adapted to your climate will freeze, get sick, or fail to mature. For example, late varieties in short‑summer regions will not give full yield, and non‑winter‑hardy varieties will die in harsh winters (Yaroslavtsev, 2003; Crandall, 1995).

How to avoid: Choose zoned varieties – those recommended for your region. Pay attention to winter hardiness, ripening time, and disease resistance. Local varieties are usually more reliable (Potapov et al., 2000).

Mistake 12. Planting Too Close Together

Dense planting leads to competition for light, water, and nutrients. Air circulation worsens, promoting fungal diseases. Yield drops, berries become smaller. This is especially critical for varieties with high shoot‑forming ability (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

How to avoid: Follow recommended spacings for your variety (see table in Chapter 3). For row planting, within‑row spacing 30–70 cm depending on shoot‑forming ability, between rows 1.5–2.5 m. Regularly thin shoots, removing extra and weak ones (Potapov et al., 2000).

Mistake 13. No Support or Tying

Without support, raspberry canes bend to the ground under the weight of fruit. This reduces light exposure, berries become dirty and rot, care and picking become difficult. Wind can break canes (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

How to avoid: Install a trellis or at least stakes for tying before or immediately after planting. Tie canes to wires at heights of 0.5 m, 1 m, and 1.5 m (depending on variety height). This is especially important for tall, high‑yielding varieties (Potapov et al., 2000).

Mistake 14. Planting Without Crop Rotation Planning

If you do not plan site rotation, raspberries will grow in one spot until the soil is depleted and diseases build up. Productivity drops, and the plantation must be removed early (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

How to avoid: When establishing the patch, plan where you will plant raspberries in 8–10 years. Reserve an alternative site or plan “mobile” plantings (shifting rows by 1–1.5 m sideways each year). This ensures continuous renewal and high yields (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

Mistake 15. Neglecting Pest and Disease Control in the First Year

Young seedlings are especially vulnerable to pests (raspberry cane midge, aphids, spider mites) and diseases (purple blotch, anthracnose). If not controlled, pests can destroy young shoots or weaken the plant so much that it never yields well (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

How to avoid: Regularly inspect young plants. At the first signs of pests (wilting tips – raspberry cane midge, curled leaves – aphids), carry out treatments. For prevention, use biologicals or insecticidal plant infusions (wormwood, garlic, nettle). Use chemicals only when absolutely necessary, strictly following the label (Potapov et al., 2000).

Summary Table: Mistakes and Prevention

Conclusion

Most mistakes when planting raspberries come down to three main principles: the right site, the right seedling, the right technique. If you pay attention to every step – choosing the site, preparing the soil, seedling quality, planting depth, watering, and mulching – your raspberry patch will grow healthy and reward you with abundant harvests for many years.

Remember: raspberries are a grateful crop. They forgive minor errors but do not tolerate gross violations of good agronomic practice. If you approach planting consciously, follow all recommendations, and avoid common mistakes, success is almost guaranteed. May your raspberry patch become a source of pride and delicious, healthy berries!