Preparing soil

Sunlight

The apple tree is a light-loving crop. To produce large, well-coloured, and sweet fruit, the tree needs to receive direct sunlight for at least 6–8 hours a day (Ferry and Warrington, 2003). In the shade of buildings, fences, or tall trees, the apple tree becomes elongated, leaves become smaller, shoots become thin and brittle, and fruit bud formation deteriorates. Fruit quality declines sharply: they become smaller, lose colour and flavour, and become more acidic (Trunov, 2012).

Recommendation: Choose the most open and sunny location on your property. Keep in mind that throughout the day, shade from buildings and large trees changes position. The ideal choice is the southern, south-eastern, or south-western side of the site.

Terrain

The micro-relief of the site has a decisive influence on the microclimate, especially on the movement of cold air. Cold air is heavier than warm air, so at night it flows into depressions, creating so-called "frost pockets" or "cold air basins" (Westwood, 1993). In such places, frosts occur more frequently, are more intense, and last longer, which is particularly dangerous during flowering (Agusti, 2010).

Recommendation: Avoid planting apple trees in lowlands, enclosed hollows, or at the foot of steep slopes where cold air stagnates. The best sites are flat or with a slight slope (2–5°) to allow cold air drainage. Ideally, air should have a free path to flow to the lower part of the slope or valley (Barden and Neilsen, 2003).

Wind Protection

Strong winds cause significant damage to apple trees. Mechanical damage (broken branches, torn leaves and fruit), increased moisture evaporation, tissue desiccation (especially in winter), and disruption of pollinating insects are just a few of the problems (Agusti, 2010). Winds from the sea carrying salts can cause leaf burns. Winds exceeding 25 km/h are already considered potentially dangerous.

Recommendation: The orchard should be protected from prevailing winds. Natural barriers (forests, hills, buildings) or artificial ones (fast-growing hedgerows of poplar, spruce, acacia) reduce wind speed by 40–50% and reduce moisture evaporation by 30–40% (Kurennoi, 1985). Ideally, the distance to the windbreak should not exceed 10–15 times its height (Potapov, 2000). However, it is important that the protection is not solid but permeable, allowing some air to pass through; otherwise, turbulence can be created that may cause as much harm as an open wind.

Frost Risk

Apple blossoms are highly sensitive to spring frosts. Flower damage occurs already at temperatures from –1.5 to –2.5 °C, and ovaries may die at –0.6…–1.1 °C (Krivko, 2014; Westwood, 1993). Crop loss from frost is one of the main causes of inconsistent fruiting.

Recommendation: Choose sites where the likelihood of late spring frosts is minimal. These are typically the upper and middle parts of slopes, not lowlands. Remember that cold air accumulates at the foot of slopes first. If you live in a region with frequent frosts, choose varieties that bloom later or apply protection methods (overhead irrigation, smoking).

Groundwater Level

The root system of an apple tree penetrates deep into the soil – up to 2–3 metres, and on loose, well-aerated soils up to 4–5 metres (Trunov, 2012). A high water table is detrimental to the tree: roots suffocate in oxygen-deficient conditions, rot, leading to weakened trees, reduced yields, and death. Apple trees on dwarf and semi-dwarf rootstocks with less powerful root systems are particularly sensitive to waterlogging (Krivko, 2014). Prolonged (more than 10–15 days) standing water in the root zone, even during the growing season, can lead to irreversible consequences (Agusti, 2010; Westwood, 1993).

Recommendation: The groundwater level should be no higher than 2.0–2.5 metres for trees on vigorous rootstocks and no higher than 1.5 metres for trees on dwarf rootstocks (Potapov, 2000). If the level is higher, you must either choose another location or install drainage (water diversion). As a last resort, you can plant the apple tree on artificial mounds (ridges) 50–70 cm high.

In the next chapter, we will examine in detail the apple tree's soil requirements and explain how to determine whether your site is suitable for growing this wonderful tree.

Mechanical Composition (Soil Texture)

Mechanical composition is the ratio in the soil of particles of different sizes: sand (large particles), silt (medium), and clay (very fine). It is this ratio that determines all the other physical properties of the soil (Agusti, 2010).

Loamy soils are the golden mean for apple trees. They contain a balanced amount of sand, silt, and clay. Such soils retain moisture and nutrients well while being sufficiently loose and air-permeable (Agusti, 2010). Roots penetrate deeply and easily obtain water and nutrients.

Sandy soils consist of large particles with many large pores between them. Water and air pass through them easily, so the soil dries out and warms up quickly (Agusti, 2010). This is good for roots in terms of aeration, but there are serious drawbacks: sand does not retain moisture or nutrients well. Organic matter decomposes quickly in it, and the soil becomes poor. In hot weather, apple tree roots in sand can suffer from overheating and desiccation. Fertilizers are also leached out more quickly in sandy soils (Barden and Neilsen, 2003). The solution is regular application of large amounts of organic matter (compost, manure) to increase water-holding capacity and fertility.

Clay soils consist of very fine particles that pack tightly together. The pores between them are very small. Water is absorbed slowly, but clay can hold large amounts of moisture (Agusti, 2010). Problems begin with gas exchange: oxygen penetrates with difficulty, and roots can suffocate, especially after rain or irrigation. When clay dries out, it becomes hard as stone, cracks, and can tear fine absorbing rootlets. Tree growth on heavy clays is greatly slowed, and they more often suffer from fungal root diseases (Agusti, 2010; Barden and Neilsen, 2003). Such soil can only be improved by adding large amounts of sand and organic materials to loosen it and improve its structure.

How to determine soil type on your site? Take a handful of moist (but not wet) soil and try to roll it into a ball, then roll it into a ribbon.

• Sand: A ball does not form; the soil crumbles in your hand.
• Loam: A ball forms, but when rolled, the ribbon breaks into pieces.
• Clay: A dense ball rolls easily, and a long thin ribbon can be rolled that does not break or crack (Westwood, 1993).

Soil Structure

Structure is the ability of soil particles to bind together into larger clods (aggregates) – a crumb structure. Ideally, the soil should have a fine crumb or granular structure. Pores of different sizes form between the clods: large (for air) and small (for water). Such soil is easy to work, allows water and air to pass through well, and roots feel free in it.

Soil compaction is the main enemy of good structure. Frequent passes of heavy machinery, constant digging to the same depth (formation of a "plough pan") destroy aggregates and turn the soil into dust or a monolithic mass (Barden and Neilsen, 2003). In compacted soil, roots cannot develop normally; they seek detours, leading to distortion and growth inhibition. Organic fertilizers (compost, manure) help maintain structure by gluing particles together and serving as food for earthworms – the main "builders" of soil structure.

Air Permeability (Aeration)

Apple tree roots, like all living tissues, respire – they absorb oxygen and release carbon dioxide (Phillips, 2005). If the soil is over-compacted or waterlogged, oxygen in it becomes critically low. Roots cease to function, and absorption of water and nutrients stops. In anaerobic (oxygen-free) conditions, harmful microorganisms that cause root rots begin to multiply actively (Agusti, 2010; Barden and Neilsen, 2003). Particularly dangerous is the causative agent of Phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora), which thrives in waterlogged soils. Symptoms of root suffocation: leaves turn yellow and drop, shoots grow poorly, fruits become smaller, and in advanced cases, the tree dies within a short time.

How to improve aeration? Ensure good drainage (removal of excess water), regularly (but not excessively!) loosen the soil in the tree trunk circles, add organic matter, and most importantly – avoid waterlogging. On heavy soils, planting on ridges or mounds improves root aeration.

Water-Holding Capacity and Water Regime

Water-holding capacity is the soil's ability to retain water that is available to plant roots (Westwood, 1993). The apple tree requires constant but moderate moisture. The soil should provide a reserve of water but not turn into a swamp.

• Sandy soils have low water-holding capacity – water quickly moves down beyond the root zone. Therefore, in summer, such soils dry out severely, and the apple tree experiences drought stress.
• Clay soils have high water-holding capacity, but water in them is often in a bound state and not entirely available to the plant. Moreover, excess moisture displaces oxygen, leading to aeration problems.
• The optimal choice is loamy soils with a rich organic matter content. Organic matter (humus) acts like a sponge, retaining moisture and releasing it to roots as needed. It also improves structure and aeration.

Drainage

Good drainage is the soil's ability to drain excess water downward through the profile (Westwood, 1993). For apple trees, it is critical that water does not stagnate either in the surface layers or in the main root zone (down to 1–1.5 metres). Water stagnation for even 3–5 days during active growth can lead to the death of fine absorbing roots, and prolonged (more than 10–15 days) flooding can have irreversible consequences for the entire tree (Agusti, 2010). Apple trees on dwarf rootstocks with shallow root systems are particularly sensitive to waterlogging (Krivko, 2014).

Signs of poor drainage: puddles that remain long after rain; a greenish tint to the soil (a sign of stagnation); growth of moss or moisture-loving plants (horsetail, sedge). If your site has drainage problems, they need to be solved before planting the orchard: lay drainage pipes, dig ditches, raise beds.

Now that we have understood what the soil should be like, in the next chapter we will discuss acidity and why pH is so important for apple trees.

What is pH and Why is it Important for Apple Trees

The hydrogen ion concentration (pH) measures the activity of hydrogen ions in the soil solution. The pH scale ranges from 0 (extremely acidic) to 14 (extremely alkaline), with neutral being 7. Soil acidity directly affects the solubility of nutrients and, consequently, their availability to roots. At non-optimal pH, many elements are simply "locked" in the soil and become unavailable to the tree, even if their total content in the soil is high (Westwood, 1993).

• The optimal pH range for apple trees is from 6.0 to 7.0 (Agusti, 2010; Barden and Neilsen, 2003; Ferry and Warrington, 2003). In this range, most macro- and micronutrients are in forms readily available to roots.
• At pH below 5.5, the solubility of aluminium and manganese increases sharply, which are toxic to apple trees at high concentrations (Barden and Neilsen, 2003). Aluminium blocks root growth, while excess manganese causes so-called "internal bark necrosis," particularly characteristic of the 'Delicious' group of varieties (Jackson, 2003). Also, in acidic soils, phosphorus, calcium, and magnesium are poorly absorbed.
• At pH above 7.5 (alkaline environment), there is a deficiency of iron (chlorosis), zinc, manganese, and boron, as their solubility drops sharply (Jackson, 2003). On calcareous soils with pH 7.5–8.5, apple trees often suffer from chlorosis – yellowing of leaves between veins due to iron deficiency. Phosphorus uptake also deteriorates.

How to Determine Soil Acidity on Your Site

The most reliable method is laboratory soil analysis. It is inexpensive, and the results provide accurate pH figures and liming recommendations. Such analysis should be done 1–2 years before planting the orchard to have time to adjust acidity (Potapov, 2000; Kurennoi, 1985). In Russia, such analyses are carried out by agrochemical laboratories at research institutes or agrochemical service stations.

For a quick assessment, you can use litmus paper or portable pH meters (available at garden centres). The technique is simple: mix a soil sample with distilled water (in a 1:2 ratio), let it sit for 30 minutes, then dip in the indicator. This will give an approximate idea, but accuracy is lower than laboratory testing.

Folk methods (by weeds) – for orientation only. On acidic soils (pH 4.5–5.5), field horsetail, sorrel, plantain, creeping buttercup, and moss often grow. On slightly acidic and neutral soils (pH 5.5–7.0) – nettle, coltsfoot, clover, chamomile. On alkaline soils – field bindweed, field mustard. However, you should not rely entirely on these signs, as weed composition is influenced by many other factors.

When and How to Apply Lime

If analysis shows that the pH is below 6.0, the soil needs liming – applying materials containing calcium and magnesium that neutralize acidity.

The most important rule: liming should be done 1–2 YEARS BEFORE PLANTING THE APPLE TREE, during site preparation, and not in the planting hole (Potapov, 2000; Barden and Neilsen, 2003). Lime reacts slowly with the soil, and the neutralization process takes from several months to a year. If lime is applied immediately before planting or, worse, directly into the hole, it can burn young roots and seriously disrupt their development. In addition, in the first years after liming, the soil must settle, and only then can trees be planted.

Types of liming materials:

• Dolomite lime (limestone containing magnesium) – the most versatile option, as apple trees need both calcium and magnesium. Dolomite is especially recommended on soils with low magnesium content.
• Limestone flour (calcite) – contains only calcium; use it if soil magnesium is sufficient.
• Slaked lime (hydrated lime) – acts faster, but caution is needed as overdose is more likely. Used less often for orchards.

Application rates depend on pH, mechanical composition, and soil type. The exact dose should be calculated by the laboratory based on analysis results. Approximately: on loamy soils, shifting pH by 0.5–1 unit requires 2 to 5 tonnes of dolomite lime per hectare (200–500 kg per 100 m²). On sandy soils, rates are significantly lower because they have less buffering capacity (Barden and Neilsen, 2003).

How to apply:

• Spread lime evenly over the surface of the site (preferably in autumn).
• Then dig or plough to a depth of 20–25 cm to ensure the material is well mixed into the root zone.
• After application, it is advisable to leave the site fallow or sow green manure so that the soil settles and chemical reactions occur.

Important: do not apply lime at the same time as large amounts of organic fertilizers (manure, compost), as nitrogen is lost when they are mixed. Also, do not mix lime with phosphorus fertilizers – phosphorus becomes unavailable. The interval between liming and application of organic matter or phosphorus should be at least 1–2 months.

What to Do with Excessive Alkalinity (pH > 7.5)

This situation is less common, but possible, especially in southern arid regions with calcareous soils or after excessive liming. In this case, pH needs to be lowered. For this, use:

• Elemental sulphur – it oxidizes in the soil to sulphuric acid, which lowers pH. Sulphur application also takes time (several months). Rates range from 100 to 300 kg/ha, depending on initial pH.
• Acidifying fertilizers (ammonium sulphate, potassium sulphate) – they also acidify the soil but act more gently.

On very alkaline soils, apple trees often suffer from iron chlorosis. In such cases, it is more effective not to try to radically change the pH of the entire site (which is expensive and difficult), but to use local acidification in planting holes (mixing excavated soil with peat, coniferous sawdust, sulphur) and use chelated iron forms for fertilizing (Jackson, 2003).

Now that we know what acidity should be, in the next chapter we will discuss how to improve different soil types – sandy, clay, rocky, and saline.

The Role of Organic Matter

Healthy soil is living soil. It is home to billions of microorganisms and earthworms that convert plant residues into humus – the nutritional and structural foundation of fertility (Phillips, 2005). Humus acts like a sponge: it retains moisture but does not allow the soil to stick together, creating an optimal structure. In addition, humus is a "reservoir" of nutrients that are gradually released to the roots. Without organic matter, even the most expensive mineral fertilizers will be of little effect, as there will be nothing to hold them in the root zone.

What to use as a source of organic matter:

• Well-rotted manure (not fresh!) – improves structure and enriches with nitrogen. Fresh manure cannot be applied under apple trees as it can burn roots and is also a source of pathogens.
• Compost – the ideal option, which you can make yourself from plant residues, grass clippings, leaves. It balances nutrition and improves soil microbiota. Compost for an apple orchard is preferably made with a carbon-to-nitrogen ratio of about 40:1 (richer in leaf litter and straw) to encourage the development of beneficial fungi, which are so important for apple tree roots (Phillips, 2005).
• Green manures – plants grown for subsequent incorporation into the soil (phacelia, mustard, lupin, oats, vetch). They enrich the soil with organic matter, structure it, and suppress weeds. This is one of the best ways to prepare a site a year before planting an orchard (Phillips, 2005).
• Wood chips (mulch) – to maintain structure and mycorrhiza in an already planted orchard. Chips from deciduous trees (except walnut) are particularly useful, gradually decomposing and serving as food for soil fungi (Phillips, 2005).

Organic matter not only improves soil "mechanics" – it creates an environment in which apple tree roots can feed through symbiosis with mycorrhizal fungi (Phillips, 2005).

Improving Sandy Soils

The main problem with sand – it does not retain either water or nutrients. Your task is to turn sand into sandy loam by creating a "sponge" of organic matter in it.

What to do:

1. Apply large amounts of organic matter. Sandy soil requires 1.5–2 times more organic fertilizer than loam. Apply well-rotted manure or compost at a rate of 5–8 buckets per 1 m² of future planting area (or at least 40–50 tonnes per hectare) (Westwood, 1993). This should be done when digging the site.

2. Use clay. Adding clay to sand (especially bentonite or other mineral clays) sharply increases water-holding capacity. This is called "claying" sands. You can spread dry clay over the surface and dig it in with the sand.

3. Green manures. Sow plants with strong taproot systems, such as lupin or rye. Their roots loosen sand deeper than ordinary digging and leave organic matter in the lower layers.

4. Mulching. Be sure to cover the tree trunk circle with straw, mown grass, or compost. Mulch prevents surface drying, and water goes deeper rather than evaporating.

5. Split irrigation and fertilization. On sand, fertilizers are quickly leached out, so it is better to apply them in small doses but more frequently – using fertigation (irrigation with fertilizers) (Jackson, 2003).

Improving Clay Soils

Clay is too dense, poorly permeable to air, and often waterlogged. In it, apple tree roots suffer from oxygen deficiency, and in drought, clay turns to stone. The task is to make clay loose and structured.

What to do:

1. Add sand and organic matter. This is the classic and most effective method. On heavy clays, you need to add 4–5 buckets of sand and 4–5 buckets of humus or compost per square metre. Sand loosens, and organic matter binds particles into clods. All this should be incorporated to spade depth.

2. Sow green manures. Use green manures with branched fibrous root systems (e.g., oats, rye, phacelia, mustard). Their roots penetrate clay soil and create channels in it, improving aeration. The green mass is ploughed in or mown and left on the surface as mulch.

3. Drainage. If the clay area is periodically flooded (spring water stagnation), drainage (water diversion) is needed. Surface ditches or deep drainage pipes can be installed. An alternative is planting on high ridges or mounds 40–60 cm high and 100–150 cm wide so that roots are in an artificially created loose layer (Westwood, 1993).

4. Avoid digging when wet. Digging or loosening clay when wet is forbidden – it destroys structure and turns it into concrete. Wait until the soil dries out.

5. Calcium. Applying gypsum (construction gypsum, plaster) to heavy clays improves their structure, as calcium binds the finest particles into aggregates. This is especially relevant for solonetzic clays (Westwood, 1993).

Improving Rocky Soils

On sites with many stones (gravel, rubble), the main problem is the small volume of soil available to roots and its rapid drying.

What to do:

1. Rootstock selection. On such soils, trees on dwarf and semi-dwarf rootstocks fare best, as their root system is shallower and can make do with a limited soil volume (Potapov, 2000; Krivko, 2014).

2. Spot improvement. When planting, dig a hole wider and deeper (1x1 m or more) to remove large stones and fill it with a mixture of fertile soil, sand, and compost, creating a "pocket" for roots (Kurennoi, 1985). As the tree grows, it can partially explore the gaps between stones.

3. Mulching. On rocky soils, mulch is vital – it protects fine roots from overheating in the sun and helps retain moisture. Use a thick layer (at least 10 cm) of shredded bark, wood chips, or straw. This will also increase the layer of fertile soil above the stones.

4. Regular organic matter application. Stones do not hold nutrients, so compost applications must be annual and abundant to create a humus layer over the rocky base (Agusti, 2010).

Improving Saline Soils

Saline soils are a problem in southern arid regions where evaporation exceeds precipitation and salts rise to the surface (Agusti, 2010). For apple trees, salts (especially chlorides and sodium) are toxic, causing leaf burn ("marginal necrosis") and root dieback.

What to do:

1. Leaching. This is the main method. If drainage is available, the soil is flushed with large amounts of fresh water (several times the normal irrigation rate) to wash salts deeper, beyond the root zone. This is done in several stages. The method is effective but requires good water drainage; otherwise, the soil may become acidified (soda salinization).

2. Applying gypsum. On soils with high sodium content (solonetz), gypsum displaces sodium from the soil exchange complex and replaces it with calcium. This improves structure and promotes sodium leaching.

3. Applying organic matter. Organic substances bind some salts and improve structure, allowing water to better leach the soil.

4. Rootstock selection. Apple trees on seedling rootstocks are more tolerant of salinity than on dwarf clonal rootstocks (Jackson, 2003). Use varieties and rootstocks with high salt tolerance.

5. Irrigation practices. In saline areas, it is better to use drip irrigation, as water is supplied locally and does not cause general salt rise (Agusti, 2010). Overhead irrigation in hot weather, when water evaporates quickly, can, on the contrary, increase salt concentration on leaves and cause burns. Use water with low mineralization (less than 1 g/L).

If your soil has multiple deficiencies (e.g., acidic and sandy at the same time), correction should be carried out comprehensively – first liming, then applying organic matter and sand or clay. Remember that soil improvement is a process that takes more than one season. The best results are achieved when preparing the site 1–2 years before establishing the orchard (Potapov, 2000; Tarasov, 1981). This is time you invest in the future health and productivity of your apple tree.

In the next, concluding chapter, we will examine in detail the practical preparation of the site and planting holes before planting the trees.

Weed Removal

Weeds are the main competitors of a young sapling for water, light, and nutrients (Choudhary, 2003; Cornell Guide, 2003). Particularly dangerous are perennial rhizomatous weeds (couch grass, sow thistle, bindweed, horsetail), which have powerful root systems that penetrate the soil to great depths. If they are not removed before planting, they will suppress the apple tree for many years, and controlling them will be much more difficult.

What to do:

1. Chemical method (herbicides). 1–2 years before planting, the site is treated with non-selective herbicides (e.g., glyphosate-based) to kill all growing weeds, including rhizomes (Potapov, 2000). The treatment is carried out in warm, dry weather when weeds are actively growing. It is important to strictly follow the dosage and timing so that the product completely breaks down in the soil by planting time.

2. Mechanical method. Repeated digging or ploughing with soil inversion over one or two seasons. In this process, weed rhizomes are turned to the surface, where they dry out and die (at least some of them). It is effective to combine with sowing green manures, which suppress weeds (Phillips, 2005).

3. Sowing green manures. If you have time, a year before planting, sow the site with fast-growing crops (mustard, phacelia, oats, vetch-oat mixture). They create a dense green mass that suppresses weeds and, after incorporation into the soil, enriches it with organic matter (Kurennoi, 1985).

4. Do not leave roots in the soil. After removing weeds (especially couch grass), carefully pick out all rhizomes from the soil. Even a small piece can give rise to a new plant.

Deep Soil Cultivation (Subsoiling)

The root system of an apple tree penetrates 2–4 metres deep, but the bulk of absorbing roots is concentrated in the 0.5–1.5 metre layer (Trunov, 2012; Rieger, 2006). For roots to develop freely, this layer must be loose, without dense layers (plough pan, clay horizons). Deep cultivation (subsoiling) is one of the most important pre-planting practices on heavy and compacted soils (Barden and Neilsen, 2003; Potapov, 2000).

What this achieves:

• Improves aeration and water permeability.
• Destroys perennial weeds.
• Allows uniform incorporation of organic and mineral fertilizers to the depth of the root zone, where they will be available to the tree for many years (Agusti, 2010).
• Eliminates the plough pan, which often forms on arable soils after years of ploughing to the same depth.

How to carry out:

• Subsoiling ploughing is carried out with a special subsoiling plough to a depth of 40–60 cm (sometimes up to 80 cm) with soil inversion. This method is the most radical but requires powerful machinery and is suitable for large areas (Potapov, 2000; Kurennoi, 1985).
• Deep loosening without soil inversion (subsoil ripping, chiselling) – less damaging to soil structure but also effective in breaking compacted layers. Carried out to a depth of 50–60 cm.
• For a small garden you can dig the site to spade depth, but this will not solve the problem of deep compaction. If the soil is heavily compacted, it is better to rent a tractor with a ripper.

Important nuances:

• Subsoiling is carried out 2–3 months before planting (for autumn planting – in spring or summer; for spring planting – in autumn), so that the soil has time to settle (Potapov, 2000). Freshly ploughed soil is too loose, and the sapling will sink, which can lead to burying the root collar.
• Lime and phosphorus-potassium fertilizers are best applied before subsoiling, so that they end up in the deep layer (Potapov, 2000; Barden and Neilsen, 2003).
• On slopes steeper than 5–8°, subsoiling is not carried out continuously but in strips – only in the places of future rows, to avoid erosion (Potapov, 2000). On very steep slopes (>10–12°), terraces – horizontal platforms – are made before planting, on which trees are planted.

Site Levelling

Levelling (surface smoothing) solves two tasks:

• Creates convenient conditions for mechanized soil cultivation and irrigation.
• Eliminates local depressions (hollows, sinkholes) where water can stagnate and cold air can accumulate (Potapov, 2000).

What to do:

• Remove the top fertile soil layer, level the surface, then return the layer to its place (if the site is very uneven). Do not cover fertile soil with infertile subsoil.
• On small sites, levelling can be done manually with rakes and shovels, removing humps and filling holes. On large areas, bulldozers and graders are used.
• Special attention – water drainage. If there is a risk of standing meltwater or rainwater, plan surface ditches for water diversion, or create drainage (Potapov, 2000; Barden and Neilsen, 2003).

Preparing Planting Spots

When the main site preparation is complete (weeds removed, soil dug, levelled, main fertilizers and lime applied), the stage of preparing the planting holes themselves begins. Although on a well-subsoiled site you can do without large holes (just make a depression the size of the roots), for most gardeners, the planting hole is a classic and reliable method.

Basic rules for preparing a planting hole:

1. Size: For apple trees on vigorous rootstocks – depth 60–80 cm, diameter 80–100 cm. For dwarf (semi-dwarf) rootstocks – the hole can be slightly smaller: 50–60 cm deep and 60–80 cm in diameter, as the root system is less powerful (Kurennoi, 1985; Choudhary, 2003).

2. When to dig: Holes are best prepared in autumn for spring planting and 2–3 weeks before autumn planting, so that the soil in the hole settles (Potapov, 2000; Tarasov, 1981). A freshly dug hole has loose walls that will quickly compact, and the sapling may settle deeper than necessary.

3. Separating layers: Put the top fertile layer (20–30 cm) aside separately, and the lower infertile layer separately. For filling the hole, use only the top layer or a mixture with organic additives.

4. Fertilizing the hole (optional): If the site was not fertilized during subsoiling, you can add 2–3 buckets of well-rotted manure or compost, 200–300 g of superphosphate, 100–150 g of potassium sulphate (or wood ash – 0.5–1 kg) to the hole. Important: mix everything thoroughly with the soil at the bottom of the hole so that fertilizers do not come into direct contact with roots (Choudhary, 2003; Cornell Guide, 2003). Never put fresh manure or nitrogen fertilizers in the planting hole – they can burn roots and cause excessive shoot growth at the expense of root formation.

5. Installing a stake: For tying the sapling, immediately install a sturdy stake 1–1.5 m high. A strong stake is needed in the first 3–5 years so that the tree is not rocked by the wind and young roots are not damaged. The stake is placed on the south side of the sapling (this provides light shade on the trunk on hot days) or on the windward side (Agusti, 2010; Westwood, 1993). In dense soils, the stake is driven into the bottom of the hole before planting to avoid damaging roots.

6. Forming a mound: At the bottom of the hole, make a small mound from the mixture of fertile soil and fertilizers. Place the sapling on it, carefully spreading the roots over the slopes of the mound (they should not bend upwards or curl). The root collar (the transition point from trunk to roots) should be at ground level or 2–5 cm higher, so that after soil settling it is level with the surface (Westwood, 1993; Choudhary, 2003). Burying the root collar is one of the most common mistakes, leading to bark rotting, growth inhibition, and tree death.

7. Backfilling and watering: Backfill the hole in layers, periodically firming the soil with your foot (carefully, so as not to damage roots). After backfilling, form a watering circle (basin) about 1 m in diameter and water generously – 2–3 buckets of water per tree (Choudhary, 2003). Water should penetrate deeper than the roots to ensure good soil-root contact and remove air pockets.

8. Mulching: After watering, mulch the trunk circle (with peat, humus, straw, sawdust) in a layer of 5–8 cm, but not right up to the trunk – leave a small space free to prevent bark rotting and protect against mice. Mulch protects the soil from drying out and overheating, and in winter from freezing (Phillips, 2005; Cornell Guide, 2003).

9. Tying: Tie the sapling to the stake with soft material (linen, plastic tape) in a figure-eight pattern, so as not to constrict the trunk. Periodically (once a year) check and loosen the tie, as the trunk thickens.

If you are planting trees on dwarf rootstocks (M9, M26), remember that they have a weak root system and need permanent support – stakes or trellis wire should be in place from the very beginning (Potapov, 2000; Krivko, 2014). For them, the hole can be smaller (40–50 cm deep), but the quality of soil preparation should be higher, as roots explore a limited volume.

Post-Planting Care

Immediately after planting, if the spring is dry, the sapling should be watered weekly (1–2 buckets) for the first 1–2 months to keep the root ball from drying out (Agusti, 2010; Cornell Guide, 2003). If planting in autumn, be sure to protect the trunk from mice and hares (wrapping with spruce branches, special mesh) and whitewash the trunk to a height of 50–70 cm to protect against sunburn (Kurennoi, 1985). The first pruning of the sapling is carried out in the spring of the following year (for one-year-olds) or immediately after planting (for two-year-olds) to balance the root and above-ground parts (Tarasov, 1981; Choudhary, 2003). But that is a topic for another section.

Brief summary of site preparation:

Following these steps, you will create ideal conditions for your apple tree not only to establish but also to grow quickly, bear fruit early, and reward you with abundant and high-quality harvests for many years.

Conclusion

Soil preparation is not routine work, but a strategic investment in the future of your orchard. Each stage – from site selection to filling the planting hole – has deep biological meaning and is based on many years of research. Do not rush, do not skimp on this stage, and your apple tree will thank you with tasty, healthy, and beautiful fruit. Remember that the apple tree is a long-lived plant, and what you lay down today will benefit you for decades.

We wish you a successful orchard!