Preparing soil

1. Simplest (rough) method – by indicator plants

Some wild plants prefer certain soils. This is not precise but can give a hint.

• On acidic soils (pH < 5.5) often grow: field horsetail, sheep sorrel, mosses, creeping buttercup, plantain, wild pansy.
• On neutral to slightly alkaline soils (pH 6.0–7.5): stinging nettle, scentless chamomile, white clover, lamb's quarters, field bindweed.
• On alkaline soils (pH > 7.5): field poppy, larkspur, field mustard.

However, this method gives only a general idea. For accuracy, better use laboratory or portable tools.

2. Laboratory Soil Analysis

The most accurate method is to send a soil sample to an agrochemical laboratory. You will receive not only pH but also a full characterisation: humus content, macro‑ and micronutrients, carbonates, salts. Such analysis is inexpensive and provides comprehensive information for informed decisions.

How to take a proper sample:

• Make 5–10 holes across the entire site (in a checkerboard pattern).
• Take soil from a depth of 20–30 cm – that is where the bulk of roots will be.
• Mix all subsamples and take about 0.5 kg of the mixture.
• Air‑dry at room temperature and pack in a paper bag.
• Send to the laboratory, indicating the crop for which you are preparing the soil.

3. Rapid Methods for Gardeners

In garden centres and online shops you can buy:

• Litmus paper – cheap and simple. Add distilled water to soil, mix, dip the paper strip, compare colour with scale. Accuracy is moderate, but sufficient for basic assessment.
• Electronic pH meter – gives precise values, requires calibration. More expensive but convenient for repeated measurements on different plots.
• Drop test kits – work by colour change of indicator solution. Give acceptable accuracy for a gardener.

Advice: measure pH at several points on your site, especially if it is heterogeneous. pH values may vary even within one garden.

1. If the soil is acidic (pH < 6.0)

Acidic soils are common in regions with excessive rainfall (Non‑Chernozem zone, Polesie, North‑West of Russia). On them, pear will suffer from calcium and magnesium deficiency and may also be affected by excess available aluminium and manganese, which are toxic in acidic conditions.

What to do – liming. Apply liming materials:

• Limestone flour (dolomite lime) – contains calcium and magnesium, the most preferable option for fruit trees. It not only raises pH but also enriches the soil with magnesium, often deficient on acidic soils.
• Slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) – acts faster but requires careful dosing, as overdosing can burn roots.
• Chalk, wood ash – also suitable, but applied in larger amounts.

The most important rule: liming should be done only based on pH analysis results. Adding lime “by eye” can lead to overliming, which is no less harmful than acidic reaction.

Approximate rates of dolomite lime to raise pH by 0.5 units:

Timing: liming materials are applied in autumn under digging (to a depth of 20–25 cm) or 2–3 months before spring planting. Lime must fully react with the soil, which takes time. It is not recommended to apply them simultaneously with organic fertilizers – part of the nitrogen will volatilise. The interval between liming and manure application should be at least 3–4 months (Potapov et al., 2000).

2. If the soil is alkaline (pH > 7.5)

Alkaline soils are typical for southern regions, steppe zones, carbonate chernozems. On them, pear – especially on quince rootstock – will suffer from chlorosis (iron, manganese, zinc, and boron deficiency) because these elements become unavailable under alkaline conditions.

What to do:

• Add sulphur or gypsum. Elemental sulphur (colloidal) is oxidised by soil bacteria and gradually acidifies the soil. Rate – roughly 30–50 g/m², but adjusted strictly by pH. Gypsum (calcium sulphate) does not drastically change pH but replaces sodium with calcium in the soil exchange complex, improving structure and reducing the harmful effect of soda.
• Acidic organic fertilisers. Peat (high‑moor), coniferous litter, compost from acidic materials can help shift pH slightly towards neutral.
• Physiologically acidic fertilisers. Ammonium sulphate, potassium sulphate, potassium chloride – with regular use they acidify the root zone.

Important warning: on highly alkaline soils (pH > 8.0) it is difficult to fight chlorosis only with chemical methods. It is easier to choose cultivars and rootstocks tolerant to high pH, or to replace the soil in the planting hole with a specially prepared mix (see Chapter 5).

3. General Rules for pH Correction

• Correct pH before planting. After planting, applying lime or sulphur to the root zone is difficult, and surface application is inefficient.
• Act gradually. Do not try to shift pH by more than 1 unit at a time. This stresses the microflora and nutrient availability. Ideally, carry out liming 1–2 years before planting (if pH is very low) (Westwood, 1993).
• Regularly monitor pH. Especially in the first years after orchard establishment. Organic fertilisation, irrigation, and use of some mineral fertilisers can shift pH. Check every 2–3 years and adjust if necessary.
• Consider the rootstock. If you decide to plant pear on quince, pH must be strictly within 6.5–7.5. At pH > 7.5 and carbonate content above 8%, abandon quince in favour of seedling rootstock (Mandal et al., 2021).

Brief summary of Chapter 3:

• Optimal pH for pear: 6.0–7.5 (for seedling rootstocks – up to 8.5; for quince – strictly 6.5–7.5).
• Determination: the most accurate is laboratory analysis; litmus paper or pH meter for quick assessment.
• Acidic soils (pH < 6.0): liming with dolomite in autumn, 2–3 months before planting.
• Alkaline soils (pH > 7.5): application of sulphur or gypsum, use of acidic organic materials.
• Main rule: all pH correction work should be done before planting. After planting, correcting pH in the root zone is much more difficult.

Saline Soils

In southern, arid regions (southern Russia, Central Asia, parts of the USA, Australia), saline soils are common. Excess salts (chlorides, sulphates, soda) are toxic to pear. Pear is moderately sensitive to salinity: the salt concentration threshold in soil solution at which yield starts to decline is about 3–4 g/L (Westwood, 1993).

Signs of salinisation: white crust on the soil surface; stunted tree growth; marginal leaf burn, yellowing; small, tasteless fruits.

What to do:

• Leaching. If possible, apply heavy irrigation (up to 3000–5000 m³/ha) to wash salts downwards. But this is effective only with drainage (otherwise salts return with groundwater).
• Apply gypsum. Gypsum (calcium sulphate) replaces harmful sodium with calcium in the soil exchange complex, improving structure and reducing soda toxicity. Rate – 2–4 t/ha.
• Planting on raised beds. On saline soils, planting on high ridges or mounds is preferable, so roots remain above the salt concentration zone.
• Rootstock choice. Some pear rootstocks are more tolerant to salinity (e.g., willow‑leaved pear Pyrus salicifolia, elaeagnus‑leaved pear P. elaeagrifolia) (Westwood, 1993). Using such rootstocks may help, but they are not always well compatible with commercial cultivars.

Carbonate (Calcareous) Soils

Carbonate soils contain high amounts of free calcium (lime). This leads to high pH (8.0 and above), causing chlorosis – unavailability of iron, manganese, zinc, boron. Such soils are common in the chernozem zone, southern Europe, Mediterranean.

Main measures:

• Add organic matter (peat, compost) – they acidify the root zone and create micro‑sites where micronutrients remain available.
• Add acidifying fertilisers – ammonium sulphate, potassium sulphate (they leave an acidic residue).
• Use chelated micronutrients – iron in chelated form (e.g., Fe‑EDDHA) remains available even at pH 8–9, unlike ordinary iron sulphate.
• Rootstock choice. Seedling rootstocks of pear (Pyrus communis) tolerate carbonate content up to 10–12% (as CaCO₃). Quince rootstocks – no more than 4–8%. If soil is highly calcareous, use seedling rootstock (Mandal et al., 2021).

Soils with Shallow Water Table (Waterlogged)

We touched on this in Chapter 1. If groundwater is shallower than 1.5 m and cannot be lowered, do not despair:

• Planting on mounds. Make mounds 50–80 cm above soil level. The mound can be up to 2–3 m wide. Fill the mound with loose, fertile mix.
• Use rootstocks with high tolerance to waterlogging. Ussurian pear (P. ussuriensis) and willow‑leaved pear (P. salicifolia) are more tolerant to excess moisture than European rootstocks (Westwood, 1993).
• Drainage ditches. If the area is large, dig open or closed drainage ditches to divert surface water.
• Avoid planting in the lowest, marshy spots. Leave them for other crops or for constructing a drainage network.

Brief summary of Chapter 4:

• Organic matter is a universal improver. On all soil types, try to raise humus content to 2.5–3%. Use rotted manure, compost, green manures.
• Clayey soils: deep loosen, add sand and organic matter, improve drainage.
• Sandy soils: add clay, large amounts of organic matter, use mulching and drip irrigation.
• Saline: leaching, gypsum application, planting on ridges, tolerant rootstocks.
• Carbonate (calcareous): acidifying fertilisers, organic matter, micronutrient chelates, seedling rootstocks.
• Waterlogged: planting on mounds, drainage, tolerant rootstocks.

Main rule: improve soil systematically, laying a solid foundation for many years. Investments in soil preparation pay off with long‑term tree health and productivity.

Deep Cultivation (Deep Ploughing)

Deep ploughing is deep tillage with inversion to a depth of 40–60 cm (sometimes up to 80 cm). It accomplishes several tasks:

1. Loosens deep layers, improving aeration and water permeability.

2. Mixes the top fertile layer with the lower one, evening out fertility through the profile.

3. Incorporates organic and mineral fertilisers to greater depth, where they will be gradually used by roots.

4. Destroys perennial weeds by burying their rhizomes deep.

When to carry out: deep ploughing is done 3–6 months before planting. For autumn planting – in May–June; for spring planting – in September–October of the previous year. During this time, the soil settles, capillary action is restored, and fertilisers begin to act (Potapov et al., 2000).

Technique:

• Full‑field deep ploughing – the entire future orchard area is ploughed. Optimal for medium and heavy soils, and on sites with shallow groundwater (to create a draining layer). On large areas, use a tractor plough with a skim coulter (for good incorporation of organic matter).
• Strip (band) deep ploughing – cultivation only of strips 1.5–2 m wide along future tree rows. This saves resources and concentrates improvements exactly in the root development zone. Recommended on poor or heavy soils, and when organic matter is limited (Potapov et al., 2000).

What to apply under deep ploughing:

• Organic fertilisers: rotted manure or compost at 30–60 t/ha (3–6 kg/m²) on medium soils and up to 100 t/ha (10 kg/m²) on poor soils. Manure is incorporated to a depth of 18–20 cm, then during ploughing mixed with lower layers.
• Phosphorus‑potassium fertilisers: superphosphate (single or double) and potassium salts (potassium sulphate) are applied under deep ploughing, since phosphorus and potassium are relatively immobile in soil and should be placed in the future root zone. Rates: 60–90 kg/ha of active ingredient (P₂O₅ and K₂O) on medium soils, higher on poor soils. Nitrogen fertilisers are not applied under deep ploughing, as they leach quickly before the tree begins to use them (Agustí, 2010; Potapov et al., 2000).
• Liming materials (if pH is low) – applied 3–6 months before deep ploughing, so they have time to react with the soil.

Important rule: do not incorporate fresh manure too deep (more than 20 cm) – under anaerobic conditions it decomposes with formation of reduced compounds harmful to roots. First spread manure on the surface, incorporate it to 18–20 cm, then carry out deep ploughing (with inversion), which mixes it with a larger soil volume (Potapov et al., 2000).

Alternative to Deep Ploughing: Deep Ripping (Subsoiling)

If deep ploughing is not possible (e.g., on steep slopes, on soils with a rocky sublayer), use deep ripping without inversion (subsoiling) – using rippers (chisel ploughs) to a depth of 40–60 cm. The soil is not turned over, only loosened, preserving natural structure and preventing erosion. However, this method is less effective for incorporating fertilisers (Westwood, 1993).

Post‑Ploughing Preparation

2–3 weeks after deep tillage, when the soil has settled somewhat, the area is levelled with disc harrows or cultivators to a depth of 10–15 cm to break large clods and create a level surface suitable for orchard layout.

Levelling and Topographic Layout

• On flat areas, light levelling with graders (removing micro‑humps and hollows) suffices. This ensures uniform moisture and soil cultivation.
• On slopes (gradient 5–8°), rows are arranged across the slope (along contour lines) – this prevents water erosion, retains moisture, and facilitates mechanised cultivation. If the slope has complex micro‑relief (“rumpled” terrain), rows follow the contours as closely as possible, even if they are winding (Potapov et al., 2000).
• On slopes steeper than 8–10°, terraces are required. The most common are step terraces – horizontal platforms 3–4 m wide, where trees are planted. Terraces are built before planting, which is costly, but later pay off through improved water and temperature regimes and the possibility of mechanised cultivation (Potapov et al., 2000).

Division into Blocks and Cells

For large orchards (over 1 ha), the area is divided into blocks (4–8 ha, and in intensive orchards 8–15 ha) with roads between them. For small amateur gardens (up to 20–30 ares), blocks are not used – just mark the rows.

Main layout elements:

• Main road (if orchard is large) – through the centre, 8–10 m wide.
• Perimeter roads – along orchard boundaries, 4–5 m wide.
• Inter‑block roads – between blocks, 3–4 m wide.
• Intra‑block passages – if rows are long (over 150–200 m), make cross passages every 100–150 m, 5 m wide, for fruit transport and machinery access (Potapov et al., 2000).

Row and Planting Site Layout

Layout is done after final soil preparation (2–3 weeks before planting). The most common scheme for amateur gardens is rectangular (rows with constant row spacing and in‑row spacing).

Tools for layout: stakes (70–80 cm long), measuring tape (30–50 m), angle‑measuring instruments (square, theodolite, or simply a 3:4:5 rope triangle for right angles).

Layout procedure:

1. Determine row direction (for light – north‑south; on slopes – across the slope).

2. At the plot edges, set stakes for the outer rows (at a distance equal to the row spacing from the boundary).

3. Mark all intermediate rows, setting stakes at each row spacing.

4. Along each row, measure the in‑row distance (according to the chosen scheme) and set planting stakes.

5. Check straightness of all rows by sighting (using alignment poles).

Planting schemes for pear (approximate):

For amateur gardens, more spacious schemes are usually used (5×6 m for vigorous, 3×4 m for dwarf) to ensure good light and ease of care.

Advice: when laying out, leave clear space for machinery turning (if you plan to use it) – this will greatly facilitate future maintenance.

Planting Holes: Size and Shape

• For vigorous and semi‑vigorous pears on seedling rootstocks: hole diameter 80–100 cm, depth 60–80 cm. On heavy clayey soils, make the hole wider (up to 120 cm) and slightly deeper to improve drainage.
• For dwarf trees (on quince, dwarf rootstocks): hole diameter 60–80 cm, depth 50–60 cm. The root system of such rootstocks is more compact, so excessive depth is not required, but a loose zone for root growth is still important.
• Trench method – instead of individual holes, dig a trench along the row, 50–60 cm deep and 60–80 cm wide. This is convenient at high planting densities (less than 3 m between trees) and allows uniform soil amendment along the entire row.

Filling the Planting Hole (Backfill Mix)

The top fertile soil layer (20–30 cm) removed from the hole is set aside separately – it will be used to prepare the mix. The lower, less fertile layer is spread over the area or used to build mounds.

Basic mix recipe for filling a hole (per hole):

• Topsoil – about 2/3 of the hole volume.
• Well‑rotted manure or compost – 2–3 buckets (20–30 kg).
• Double superphosphate – 200–300 g.
• Potassium sulphate – 100–150 g.
• Wood ash (for acidification if pH below 6.0) – 300–500 g.
• On sandy soils, additionally add 1–2 buckets of clay (for moisture retention).
• On clayey soils – 1–2 buckets of sand or coarse vermiculite (for loosening).

Important caution: mix all components thoroughly. Fresh manure must not be used – it burns roots. Only well‑rotted (2–3 years old). Mineral fertilisers are applied without direct contact with roots – mix them well with soil in the lower and middle parts of the hole; in the root zone (upper 20–25 cm) leave clean soil with a small addition of organic matter (Agustí, 2010).

Forming the Mound and Installing the Sapling

1. At the bottom of the hole place a drainage layer (if soil is heavy or groundwater is high): broken brick, expanded clay, coarse sand – 10–15 cm.

2. Then fill with the prepared mix to a level such that after planting the root collar (graft union) ends up 3–5 cm above the soil surface (on light soils it can be level, on heavy soils slightly higher). This prevents burying the root collar, which leads to bark decay and formation of adventitious roots above the graft (which on dwarf rootstocks causes loss of dwarfing) (Westwood, 1993; Potapov et al., 2000).

3. In the centre of the hole, drive a planting stake (about 1.5 m high) on the south side of the sapling (to avoid damaging roots during installation). The stake serves as support for tying in the first 2–3 years.

4. Place the sapling on the north side of the stake, carefully spread the roots over the mound inside the hole. Roots should not be bent upward or twisted.

5. Fill the hole with the prepared mix, periodically (every 10–15 cm) lightly compacting the soil to avoid air pockets. Pay special attention to filling gaps between roots.

6. After filling, form a tree circle – a watering basin 60–80 cm in diameter with earthen ridges around the edge.

7. Water abundantly – 2–3 buckets (20–30 L) per tree, so the soil settles and adheres to the roots. After watering, top up soil if necessary to keep the root collar at the required level.

8. Mulch the tree circle with a layer of 8–10 cm (peat, compost, straw, mown grass) – this conserves moisture, prevents weed growth, and protects roots from overheating and cooling.

Preparing Planting Sites on Mounds (for High Water Tables)

If the site is wet, instead of a hole make a raised mound:

1. Remove the topsoil to a depth of 20–30 cm in the future mound area.

2. Heap the prepared mix (see above) into a cone 40–60 cm high and 1.2–1.5 m in diameter at the base.

3. In the centre of the mound, make a slight depression (like a planting pocket) and plant the tree so that the root collar is 5–10 cm above ground level.

4. Cover roots with the mix, water, and mulch. Such a mound will settle somewhat over time, but the root collar will remain above the water table.

What if the Sapling Has a Closed Root System (Container)?

Saplings with closed root systems (in pots, containers) can be planted virtually year‑round. Hole preparation for them is simpler:

• The hole should be 2–3 times wider than the root ball and 10–15 cm deeper than its height.
• Place a layer of prepared mix on the bottom, position the root ball so its top is level with the soil (do not bury), fill the sides with mix, firm, water, mulch.
• Before planting, gently tease out roots if they are pot‑bound – make a few vertical cuts on the sides of the ball to stimulate new roots to grow outward.

Brief summary of Chapter 5:

• Clearing: remove stumps, stones, shrubs, and perennial weeds – this is essential for orchard health.
• Deep cultivation (deep ploughing): carry out 3–6 months before planting to a depth of 40–60 cm, incorporating organic matter (rotted manure/compost) and phosphorus‑potassium fertilisers. Nitrogen must not be applied under deep ploughing.
• Layout: arrange rows across the slope (on slopes) or north‑south (on flat land). On steep slopes, build terraces. Include road network and shelterbelts.
• Marking: use stakes, measuring tape, and angle tools. Keep rows straight.
• Planting holes: for vigorous rootstocks – 80–100 cm diameter, 60–80 cm depth; for dwarfs – 60–80 cm by 50–60 cm. Fill with a mix of topsoil, organic matter, superphosphate, and potassium. On heavy soils add sand; on sandy soils add clay.
• Planting: root collar should be 3–5 cm above ground (especially for dwarf rootstocks). Place a support stake, spread roots, fill, water (2–3 buckets), mulch.
• On wet sites: plant on mounds 40–60 cm high.

Main rule: quality site and planting hole preparation is an investment in the future of the tree. In one day you create conditions that will work for decades. Do not skimp on this stage – the tree will reward you with healthy growth and abundant harvests.

Conclusion of the Article

We have covered all stages of soil preparation for a pear orchard – from site selection to planting the tree. Each chapter addressed a specific practical question:

1. Where to plant? – we chose a sunny, wind‑protected elevated site with deep groundwater.

2. What soil is needed? – optimal loams with good structure, aeration, moisture‑holding capacity, and drainage.

3. What pH? – we adjusted acidity to 6.0–7.5, considering the rootstock.

4. How to improve the soil? – we enriched with organic matter, corrected mechanical composition on heavy and light soils, and considered special cases (salinity, carbonate, waterlogging).

5. How to prepare the site and plant? – we cleared, cultivated, laid out, prepared holes, and planted following all rules.

Now your pear has every chance for a long, healthy, and productive life. What remains is regular care: watering, pruning, pest and disease protection. But the foundation has been laid. May your orchard thrive!