Preparing the soil

1.1 Sunlight

Cherry is a light-loving crop. For normal growth, development, and fruiting, the tree requires at least 6-8 hours of direct sunlight per day (Martin, 2019). Insufficient light leads to:

• shoots becoming elongated and thin;
• reduced flower bud formation;
• smaller fruits with lower sugar content;
• poor fruit coloring.

Therefore, choose open, well-lit areas for planting, avoiding shade from buildings, fences, or tall trees.

1.2 Terrain

Cherries prefer elevated, well-lit locations (Mikheev, Revyakina, 2004). Sites with a gentle slope are considered ideal:

• South, southwest, and southeast slopes warm up faster in spring, promoting an early start to the growing season. However, on southern slopes in northern regions, there is a risk of too-early flowering and flower damage from late spring frosts (Martin, 2019).
• North slopes warm up more slowly, delaying flowering and helping to avoid spring frosts, but they are more humid and cooler, which can promote disease development (Koumanov & Long, 2017).

It is not recommended to plant cherries in lowlands, at the bottom of ravines, or in closed hollows—cold air accumulates in such places, significantly increasing the risk of flower damage from spring frosts (Longstroth & Perry, 1996; Koumanov & Long, 2017).

1.3 Protection from Cold Winds

Winds negatively affect cherry orchards by:

• drying out the soil and plants;
• damaging flowers and ovaries;
• reducing the activity of pollinating insects (Koumanov & Long, 2017);
• increasing winter dieback of branches.

To protect the orchard, use natural or artificial windbreaks. Suitable windbreaks include rows of trees (cypress, casuarina, birch, maple, linden) or special screens (Agustí, 2010; Potapov et al., 2000). An important condition: windbreaks should not block the flow of cold air—they need gaps to allow cold air to drain down the slope (Longstroth & Perry, 1996).

In areas with strong winds, protective belts should be established 2-5 years before planting the orchard (Potapov et al., 2000).

1.4 Risk of Spring Frosts

Cherry flowers are very sensitive to low temperatures. According to Longstroth and Perry (1996), critical temperatures for bud damage are:

For cherries, the critical value is -2 °C during bloom: at this temperature for 30 minutes, about 10% of flowers are damaged, and at -4 °C, almost the entire crop is lost (Longstroth & Perry, 1996).

How to reduce risk:

• Choose sites with good air circulation and natural cold air drainage (middle or upper part of a slope).
• Plant cherries on sites protected from north winds.
• In regions with harsh winters, give preference to varieties with late flowering and prolonged bud dormancy (Trunov et al., 2012).

1.5 Depth of Groundwater

The cherry root system is very sensitive to waterlogging. Flooding roots for 8 days or more makes tree recovery impossible (Longstroth & Perry, 1996).

Therefore:

• Groundwater should be no shallower than 1.5–2 meters from the soil surface (Mikheev, Revyakina, 2004).
• Sites with high groundwater, waterlogged soils, and places with stagnant water are categorically unsuitable for cherries.
• If no alternative site exists, install a drainage system or grow cherries on artificial raised mounds 40–50 cm high (Westwood, 1993; Mikheev, Revyakina, 2004).

In the next chapter, we will look at which soils are most suitable for cherries and how to assess soil quality on your site.

2.1 Mechanical Composition

Cherries grow best on light and medium loamy soils, as well as on sandy loams (Koumanov & Long, 2017; Mikheev, Revyakina, 2004).

• Loams are optimal: they retain moisture and nutrients well while remaining loose enough for root growth.
• Sandy loams are also acceptable, but they dry out faster and are poorer in nutrients, thus requiring more frequent watering and fertilization.
• Heavy clay soils are undesirable: they warm up slowly, have poor aeration, are prone to waterlogging and crust formation. Cherry roots in such conditions suffocate and are often affected by rots (Westwood, 1993; Longstroth & Perry, 1996).
• Sandy soils are also not ideal—they lose moisture and nutrients too quickly, which is particularly critical for cherries, which react poorly to drought.

For European cherry (Prunus avium) and common cherry, soils dominated by the medium fraction—light and medium loams—are preferred (Krivko, 2014). In southern regions with irrigation, lighter soils are also acceptable, but they will require more intensive watering and fertilization.

2.2 Soil Structure

Cherries need well-structured soil, meaning soil where individual particles (sand, silt, clay) are bound into aggregates (crumbs). In such soil:

• there are many pores for air and water circulation;
• roots easily penetrate both deeply and widely;
• the surface does not crust or crack after rain or watering.

Structure depends on the organic matter content (humus) and the activity of soil microorganisms. If the soil is structureless (silty or compacted), it needs to be improved by adding organic matter (compost, well-rotted manure, green manures). Ideally, the soil should be loose, crumbly, and friable—such that when squeezed in the hand, it forms a ball but crumbles easily (Martin, 2019).

2.3 Drainage

This is perhaps the most important physical parameter for cherries. Cherry roots are extremely sensitive to water stagnation and oxygen deficiency. According to Longstroth and Perry (1996), even short-term flooding (2–4 days) leads to suppression of shoot growth, and flooding for 8 days or more usually leads to tree death.

Signs of good drainage:

• water does not pool on the surface after rain or watering;
• the soil does not become soapy or stay wet for a long time;
• when digging a hole to 50–60 cm depth, water does not accumulate in it.

To check drainage, dig a hole 40–50 cm deep, fill it with water, and time how long it takes to drain. If the water disappears in 3–4 hours—drainage is excellent; if in 8–10 hours—satisfactory; if more than a day—the soil is unsuitable for cherries without significant improvement (Martin, 2019).

2.4 Air Permeability

Cherry roots, like all living roots, need oxygen for respiration. In dense, waterlogged, or compacted soils, oxygen content decreases, carbon dioxide accumulates, and the root system begins to die off. Absorbent rootlets suffer especially.

Air permeability is directly related to soil structure and density. The optimal soil density for fruit crops is about 1.2–1.4 g/cm³ (Potapov et al., 2000). Deviation from this value requires loosening and organic matter application. Deep digging or deep ploughing to 40–60 cm helps create a porous layer in which roots can develop freely (Westwood, 1993; Trunov et al., 2012).

2.5 Water-Holding Capacity

Cherries cannot tolerate water stagnation, but prolonged drought is also detrimental. Therefore, the soil must retain sufficient moisture but not hold excess water. Good water-holding capacity is achieved on loamy soils and when organic matter content is at least 2–3%.

Approximate values for plant-available moisture:

• field capacity (maximum water the soil can retain against gravity)—for loams about 25–30% of soil weight;
• wilting point (when the plant can no longer extract water)—about 13–17% for loams (Westwood, 1993).

Cherries begin to suffer from moisture deficiency when the available water reserve falls below 50–60% of field capacity. Therefore, in arid regions, irrigation is mandatory, and on light soils, mulching and regular watering are required.

To summarize: the ideal soil for cherries is a structural loam or light loam, with a fertile layer depth of at least 60–80 cm, well-drained, with a pH close to neutral and organic matter content of at least 2%. If your soil does not meet these parameters, do not despair—we will cover how to improve it in detail in the following chapters.

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3.1 Optimal pH for Cherries

Cherries prefer soils with a reaction close to neutral (Mikheev, Revyakina, 2004). The optimal pH range is from 6.0 to 7.0 (Koumanov & Long, 2017; Westwood, 1993). The extreme permissible values are from 5.5 to 7.5; however, once these boundaries are exceeded, problems with nutrient uptake begin.

At pH below 5.5:

• solubility of aluminum and manganese increases to toxic levels;
• uptake of phosphorus, calcium, and magnesium deteriorates;
• activity of beneficial soil bacteria (nitrogen fixers, nitrifiers) decreases;
• roots become more susceptible to fungal diseases.

At pH above 7.0–7.5:

• iron, manganese, zinc, and boron become unavailable to plants;
• chlorosis develops (yellowing of leaves, especially young ones);
• effectiveness of phosphorus fertilizers decreases.

3.2 Determining Acidity

The exact pH can only be determined through a laboratory soil analysis. This is the recommended method—it is inexpensive and provides a complete picture not only of pH but also of the content of major nutrients (Martin, 2019; Agustí, 2010). Samples are taken from several points on the site, mixed, and sent to an agrochemical laboratory.

If laboratory analysis is unavailable, you can use:

1. Litmus paper (available at garden centers)—provides an approximate pH estimate.

2. Electronic pH meter—more accurate than litmus paper but requires calibration.

3. Folk methods (e.g., indicator weeds): acidic soils often have horsetail, sorrel, plantain, creeping buttercup; neutral and slightly alkaline soils have lamb's quarters, nettle, white goosefoot. These signs are only indicative but can hint whether there is a problem.

3.3 Correcting Soil Reaction

3.4 When and How to Apply Lime in Preparation for Cherries

Liming is a long-term operation. It is effective only if thoroughly mixed with soil to the depth of the root zone (at least 20–25 cm). Therefore:

1. Lime is applied 1–2 years before planting, preferably during deep ploughing (Westwood, 1993; Martin, 2019).

2. It is evenly spread over the surface and immediately incorporated into the soil.

3. Do not mix lime with manure or phosphorus fertilizers at the same time—they react, reducing each other's effectiveness.

If planting is planned for the next year and pH is critically low, "quick" liming with hydrated lime can be used, but at least 4 months must pass after application (Koumanov & Long, 2017)—this is the minimum time for reaction stabilization.

On small plots for amateur gardens, it is acceptable to apply lime to planting holes (0.5–1 kg of dolomite flour per hole), thoroughly mixing with the soil, but this is less effective than whole-area deacidification.

Main conclusion: acidity is not a minor detail but a fundamental factor for root health and nutrient uptake. It must be corrected in advance, without haste, and always under the control of soil analysis. In the next chapter, we will cover how to improve soil physical properties—structure, water-holding capacity, and air permeability—using organic and mineral additives.

4.1 Organic Matter—the Basis of Fertility

Organic matter (humus, compost, green manures) is the "lifeblood" of the soil. It simultaneously:

• improves structure (binds particles into aggregates);
• increases water-holding capacity (especially on sands);
• increases air permeability (especially on clays);
• serves as a nutrient source for plants and soil microflora;
• increases cation exchange capacity (ability to retain nutrients) (Westwood, 1993; Trunov et al., 2012).

Optimal organic matter content in soil under cherries is at least 2–3%, and preferably 3–5% (Koumanov & Long, 2017). Most soils in Russia and Ukraine contain only 1–1.5% (Agustí, 2010). Therefore, the gardener's task is to increase this indicator by at least 1–1.5%.

Sources of organic matter:

• Well-rotted manure (not fresh!)—apply 30–60 t/ha, per 100 m²—300–600 kg (Agustí, 2010; Trunov et al., 2012).
• Compost (mature, decomposed)—similar rates, it is safer and more uniform in composition.
• Peat (lowland, neutralized)—holds moisture well and improves structure but is poor in nutrients.
• Green manures—plants grown on the site and incorporated into the soil before planting. Legumes are especially valuable (lupine, vetch, peas, clover), enriching the soil with nitrogen (Potapov et al., 2000; Trunov et al., 2012). Green manures are sown a year or two before planting, then plowed in or dug over.

When and how to apply organic matter: The best method is uniform surface distribution followed by deep ploughing or deep digging to 40–60 cm (Westwood, 1993; Trunov et al., 2012). Organic matter should be incorporated into the root zone, not left on the surface. With deep incorporation, it decomposes gradually, creating a long-term humus reserve.

Caution! Fresh manure, straw, and fresh sawdust consume a lot of nitrogen during decomposition and can inhibit roots. Therefore, they are applied in advance (1–2 years earlier) or only fully decomposed materials are used.

4.2 Improving Heavy Soils (Clay, Compact Loam)

Clay soils are a problem for cherries: they have poor aeration, warm up slowly, and are prone to waterlogging. However, they can be significantly improved.

Main techniques:

1. Incorporating coarse sand (builder's, river sand) in a ratio of about 1:1 with the soil in the root zone. This increases porosity and improves drainage.

2. Abundant application of organic matter (compost, humus)—it loosens heavy soil and promotes aggregate formation.

3. Liming (if pH is low)—calcium helps clay particles clump into stable crumbs, improving structure (Westwood, 1993).

4. Deep ploughing or loosening to 50–70 cm with soil inversion (if the humus horizon allows). This breaks the compacted subsoil layer (Westwood, 1993; Krivko, 2014).

5. Planting on beds or mounds 30–50 cm high to keep the root system above the waterlogging level (Westwood, 1993; Mikheev, Revyakina, 2004).

What to avoid: do not dig clay soil when wet—this destroys structure and creates clods that are then difficult to break. Work only at optimal moisture (soil crumbles into lumps, not smears).

4.3 Improving Light Soils (Sand, Sandy Loam)

Light soils are the other extreme: they warm up quickly and are well-aerated but do not retain moisture and nutrients. Cherries on sands suffer greatly from drought and starvation without frequent watering and feeding.

Main techniques:

1. Incorporating clay, loam, or loamy soil (up to 30–40% of the root zone volume)—significantly increases water-holding capacity and cation exchange capacity.

2. Abundant and repeated application of organic matter (compost, well-rotted manure)—organic matter on sands acts like a sponge: retains moisture and nutrient ions. On sandy soils, organic matter rates can be increased to 80–100 t/ha (Trunov et al., 2012; Koumanov & Long, 2017).

3. Clay application—adding bentonite clay or loam followed by digging. This is a radical but very effective method.

4. Regular surface mulching (peat, compost, mown grass) to reduce evaporation.

5. Applying potassium and magnesium fertilizers more often and at higher rates—they are quickly leached from sands (Westwood, 1993).

Important: On very light soils without irrigation, cherry cultivation is extremely risky. It is better to ensure in advance that you can provide regular watering, especially in the first 2–3 years and during fruit formation.

4.4 Problematic Soil Features

Saline soils. Cherries, like most fruit crops, are sensitive to salinization (Koumanov & Long, 2017). At salt content above 1.3–2.5 dS/m in water and 1.9–3.1 dS/m in soil, yields can decline by 10–50%. If the site is saline:

• pre-planting leaching irrigation (abundant watering with water drainage) is carried out to wash out salts;
• gypsum is applied to replace sodium with calcium (Westwood, 1993);
• organic matter is accumulated—it reduces salt toxicity.

Carbonate (alkaline) soils—typical for southern regions. At pH above 7.5, cherries often develop chlorosis due to iron deficiency. In this case:

• apply physiologically acidic fertilizers (ammonium sulfate, potassium sulfate);
• use iron chelates for foliar feeding;
• choose varieties and rootstocks resistant to chlorosis (e.g., Mahaleb cherry, clonal rootstocks of the VVA, OD series, etc. (Krivko, 2014)).

Waterlogged and peaty soils—are of little use for cherries due to high acidity and shallow groundwater. If they must be used:

• drain (drainage, ditches);
• add sand and clay to improve physical properties;
• lime to neutral reaction;
• plant on ridges or mounds.

Soils with compacted subsoil layer ("plow pan")—typical for sites that have been under field crops for many years. The compacted layer at 20–40 cm depth prevents roots from going deeper, creating a "perched" water table. Before planting, it is necessary to:

• carry out deep loosening (subsoiling, chisel plowing) to 50–60 cm depth;
• if possible—deep ploughing with soil inversion, but only if it does not bring infertile subsoil to the surface (Westwood, 1993; Potapov et al., 2000).

Important principle: soil improvement is not a one-day process. It is better to start preparation 1–2 years before planting. Sow green manures, apply organic matter, carry out deep cultivation, let the soil "settle," and conduct repeated pH and nutrient analysis. Then you will be confident that young trees will go into optimal conditions.

In the next, final chapter, we will look at specific steps for preparing the site immediately before planting—from clearing to marking planting spots.

5.1 Clearing the Area

The site surface must be cleared of anything that could hinder root growth and equipment operation.

Removing trees and stumps. If the site was occupied by an old orchard or forest, it is necessary to uproot stumps and remove large roots. Leftover roots of old trees can be a source of diseases (e.g., Armillaria root rot) and hinder the development of young cherry roots (Longstroth & Perry, 1996; Koumanov & Long, 2017). It is best to carry out uprooting with a tractor-mounted uprooter or manually, with subsequent removal of all root fragments thicker than 2–3 cm.

Removing stones and boulders. Large stones not only hinder cultivation but also create waterlogging spots and prevent uniform root distribution. They should be removed from the site.

Controlling perennial weeds. Rhizomatous and root-sprouting weeds (couch grass, sow thistle, dandelion, bindweed) can significantly suppress young trees, especially in the first years. The most effective way is to destroy them in advance: by applying systemic herbicides (e.g., glyphosate) a year before planting, or by carrying out repeated cultivations and weedings during the season to deplete the reserve substances in the roots (Martin, 2019; Trunov et al., 2012). Important: herbicides must be completely decomposed by the time of planting, so they are used at least 3–4 months before planting seedlings.

Collecting and removing plant residues. All tops, leaves, and branches should be removed from the site or composted in a separate pile (not at the planting site) to avoid attracting rodents and provoking fungal diseases.

5.2 Primary Soil Cultivation

After clearing, deep cultivation begins. The main goal is to create a loose, uniform, well-aerated medium in the root zone (0–50 cm), free from clods and compaction. This stage is the only opportunity to thoroughly mix organic matter, fertilizers, and soil amendments with the soil to a depth of 40–60 cm.

Deep ploughing is the most reliable method for large areas. It is carried out with plows (e.g., PPN-40, PPU-50 or similar) to a depth of 45–60 cm (on deep chernozems) and 35–50 cm (on podzolic and gray forest soils) (Trunov et al., 2012; Krivko, 2014). The depth is chosen depending on the thickness of the humus horizon—do not turn infertile podzol to the surface. During deep ploughing, the site is first plowed with soil inversion, then disked or cultivated for leveling.

If deep ploughing is not possible (e.g., on rocky or severely eroded slopes), use strip cultivation—deep cultivation only in the zone of future rows, 1.5–2 m wide, with organic matter and fertilizers applied specifically to these strips (Potapov et al., 2000; Krivko, 2014).

Important conditions:

• Cultivation is carried out 2–3 months before planting (in autumn—in June–July, in spring—in September–October) so that the soil has time to settle and restore capillary structure (Trunov et al., 2012).
• Work only at optimal moisture (soil does not stick to tools but does not dust). When wet, clay soils turn into clods; when dry, they become excessively pulverized.
• During deep ploughing, simultaneously incorporate organic matter (compost, well-rotted manure), phosphorus-potassium fertilizers, and soil amendments (lime, gypsum), if required by soil analysis (Agustí, 2010; Westwood, 1993).

After ploughing, the surface is leveled with harrows or cultivators—this will facilitate further marking and planting.

5.3 Orchard Layout

Proper site layout is the key to convenient maintenance and uniform tree illumination.

Choosing a planting scheme. The distance between trees depends on the vigor of the variety and rootstock, as well as soil fertility. For cherries on vigorous rootstocks (wild cherry, Mahaleb), optimal schemes are 5–6 × 3–4 m; for varieties on medium- and low-vigor clonal rootstocks—4–5 × 2–3 m (Krivko, 2014; Mikheev, Revyakina, 2004). In amateur gardens on small plots, 3–4 m between rows and 2.5–3 m between trees are acceptable, but with annual pruning and crown restriction.

Row orientation. In flat conditions, rows are best oriented north-south—this ensures uniform illumination of both sides of the crown throughout the day (Agustí, 2010; Potapov et al., 2000). On slopes, rows are always laid out across the slope (along contour lines) to prevent water erosion (Koumanov & Long, 2017; Trunov et al., 2012). Slight row curvature is acceptable—the main thing is that the main direction follows the contour lines.

Marking planting spots. The most accurate method is using a tape measure or cord and stakes. First, a baseline is established (usually along the site boundary or road), then using a right triangle (3:4:5), a perpendicular is constructed and all rows and spots are marked (Westwood, 1993; Agustí, 2010). For large areas, tractor markers and planting machines are used. In an amateur garden, it is enough to drive stakes at the sites of future holes.

Leave turning strips 6–8 m wide at the ends of rows for convenient equipment maneuvering (Potapov et al., 2000).

5.4 Preparation of Planting Spots

The final stage of preparation is creating individual spots for each seedling.

Holes. Optimal size—diameter 60–80 cm, depth 50–60 cm (Mikheev, Revyakina, 2004). The top fertile layer (20–30 cm) is set aside separately from the lower (less fertile) layer. It is better to prepare the hole 2–4 weeks before planting to allow it to "mature" and the soil to settle.

If using an auger, especially in heavy wet soil, be sure to loosen the hole walls with a shovel or fork—otherwise, a "glazed" surface forms, hindering root penetration and drainage (Westwood, 1993; Longstroth & Perry, 1996). Scoring the walls of the hole or using a wider planting tool (shovel instead of auger) helps avoid this.

On waterlogged sites with shallow groundwater or heavy clay soil, holes are not used—instead, mounds (ridges) are built 40–50 cm high and 1.3–1.5 m wide at the base (Mikheev, Revyakina, 2004; Westwood, 1993). The seedling is planted on the top of the mound, roots spread down the slopes, and topped up with soil. This saves the root system from flooding and provides aeration.

Applying fertilizers to the hole. It is recommended to mix the top fertile layer with:

• 1–2 buckets of well-rotted compost or manure;
• 200–300 g of superphosphate (or 100–150 g of double superphosphate);
• 50–60 g of potassium sulfate (or 0.5–1 L of wood ash);
• if soil is acidic—0.5–1 kg of dolomite flour or chalk (Mikheev, Revyakina, 2004).

The mixture is thoroughly mixed and poured into the bottom of the hole in a mound. Do not put nitrogen fertilizers or fresh manure in the hole—they can burn young roots (Agustí, 2010; Westwood, 1993). Nitrogen is only applied superficially after growth begins.

Planting depth is a critically important point. The root collar (the transition point from roots to trunk) after soil settlement should be at the surface level or slightly higher (2–3 cm) on heavy soils (Longstroth & Perry, 1996; Mikheev, Revyakina, 2004). On light sandy soils, deeper planting by 5–8 cm is allowed, but on dwarf and clonal rootstocks, the graft union should never be buried—this can cause the tree to root on its own and lose dwarfing characteristics (Westwood, 1993; Trunov et al., 2012). Burying the graft on dwarfing rootstocks causes the tree to grow vigorously and start bearing later.

Planting. Form a small mound from the prepared mixture at the bottom of the hole, place the seedling on it (preferably with the south side facing the stake). Spread the roots in all directions so they do not bend upward or intertwine. Then fill with the fertile mixture, slightly shaking the seedling to fill voids. Tamp the soil with your foot, starting from the edges of the hole toward the center, but not too hard. Form a tree-ring basin about 50 cm in diameter for watering.

Watering and mulching. Immediately after planting, pour 2–3 buckets of water (20–30 L) into the basin. After the water is absorbed, mulch the basin with peat, humus, mown grass, or compost in a layer of 5–8 cm. This conserves moisture, prevents crust formation, and suppresses weed growth (Westwood, 1993; Martin, 2019). On mounds, spread mulch over the entire surface around the trunk, but without contact with the bark to avoid rot.

Staking. The young tree must be tied to a stake (placed on the south side so it does not shade the seedling). The tie should be in a figure-eight—it does not constrict the bark and allows the trunk to thicken (Mikheev, Revyakina, 2004). The stake is driven in so that it is 15–20 cm below the crown.