Propagation

What are root suckers and why do they form?

On raspberry roots, adventitious (adventive) buds are laid — groups of cells that retain the ability to divide and form a new shoot. They are located in the pericycle region, the inner layer of the root (Kurennoi et al., 1985; Potapov et al., 2000). As soon as conditions become favourable (temperature, humidity, light availability), these buds awaken and give rise to vertical shoots — suckers that develop their own root system. Thus, root suckers are already small plants, connected to the mother bush.

Why this matters for the gardener. Suckers have the beginnings of their own roots and, once separated, quickly establish. This is the most reliable method for beginners, as the plant has already passed the initial stages of development.

When and what kind of suckers to take

There are two types of root suckers depending on the time of harvesting.

Step‑by‑step instruction for harvesting hardened suckers

1. Select a mother bush. It should be healthy, productive, and typical of the variety. Observe it for 2–3 years: select plants that bear fruit steadily, do not suffer from leaf spots, have no swellings on shoots (a sign of gall midge), and do not produce misshapen berries (a sign of viral infection) (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

2. Determine the harvest zone. Step back at least 30–40 cm from the centre of the bush. It is at this distance from the mother plant that the strongest suckers with a well‑developed own root system are found. Closer to the bush, the suckers are weaker because they compete with the mother plant for nutrition (Crandall, 1995; Rieger, 2006).

3. Carefully dig out the sucker. Dig from two sides, trying to preserve roots at least 15–20 cm long together with a clod of earth. The more roots preserved, the faster the seedling will establish.

4. Examine the roots and shoot. Discard plants with:

• dark spots, swellings or growths on roots (a sign of root cancer or root rot);
• swelling at the base of the shoot (a sign of stem gall midge);
• orange larvae visible under the bark (shoot gall midge);
• bluish spots on the bark (purple spot) (Yaroslavtsev, 2003; Potapov et al., 2000).

5. Prepare the sucker for planting. Shorten the above‑ground part to 20–25 cm, leaving 1–2 well‑developed buds. This reduces evaporation and helps the plant root faster. If there are damaged or dry roots, remove them with pruners to healthy tissue.

6. Plant in a permanent place or in a nursery bed. The planting depth should be the same as it was in the nursery (the noticeable colour transition on the bark is a guide). The root collar should not be buried — this inhibits development and may cause rotting (Dankov, 2015; Kurennoi et al., 1985).

7. Water and mulch. After planting, water abundantly (at least 5–10 L per plant) and cover the root zone with peat, humus or sawdust in a layer of 3–5 cm. Mulch retains moisture, protects against overheating and suppresses weeds.

Step‑by‑step instruction for harvesting green suckers

1. Select a mother bush according to the same criteria as for hardened suckers.

2. Wait until the suckers reach 10–20 cm. The optimal phase is when shoots are still herbaceous but are beginning to darken at the base. Taking them earlier is not advisable — they are too vulnerable. Later — they quickly lose moisture when transplanted (Weber, 2013).

3. Dig out the sucker with a small clod of earth (approximately 8×8 cm). Separate it from the mother root, trying not to break the fine roots. The root system at this age is still delicate, so work carefully.

4. Do not prune the above‑ground part. Unlike hardened suckers, green suckers do not have their leaves removed — they are needed for photosynthesis and for producing rooting stimulants. When transplanting, you may only pinch the tip for better branching (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

5. Plant immediately in well‑moistened soil. If planting is delayed, place the suckers in a container with water or wrap them in a wet cloth and plastic to prevent the roots from drying out. Raspberry roots are very sensitive to drying — even 10–15 minutes in the air can reduce survival (Crandall, 1995).

6. Shade for the first 5–7 days. Use non‑woven cover material, screens, or simply tall “neighbour” plants. This reduces evaporation and helps the plant adapt.

7. Water regularly, keeping the soil moist but without waterlogging. Excess moisture is as harmful as lack of it — it can cause root rot.

What mistakes are most often made

• Taking suckers too close to the bush. Such suckers are weaker, have fewer own roots, and establish worse.
• Ignoring disease symptoms. If the mother bush was diseased, the suckers will also be infected. Viral and mycoplasma diseases are transmitted with all parts of the plant (Potapov et al., 2000).
• Keeping suckers in the air for too long. Roots dry out, and seedlings die or suffer for a long time. Always keep them in a moist environment.
• Planting too deep. Burying the root collar inhibits growth and can cause plant death.
• Not culling during the season. Weak, crooked or damaged suckers will not give a good harvest — it is better to remove them immediately without pity.

Can root suckers be used from remontant raspberries?

Yes, but remontant varieties produce fewer suckers than ordinary ones. Therefore, choose suckers especially carefully — only the strongest specimens. For remontant varieties, root cuttings or green cuttings are more often used, which give more planting material from one mother plant (Dankov, 2015; Crandall, 1995).

Summary. Root suckers are a reliable and accessible method for the amateur gardener. The main thing is to select healthy material, observe the timing, and care for young plants properly. Under these conditions, survival reaches 85–95%, and already in the second year the young bushes begin to bear fruit.

Why do root cuttings produce shoots?

On raspberry roots, adventitious buds are embedded — groups of cells that retain the ability to divide even after the root is separated from the mother plant. Under favourable conditions (warmth, moisture, air), these buds awaken and give rise to new shoots (Kurennoi et al., 1985; Potapov et al., 2000). In raspberries, the number of such buds is large — up to 20 per 1 cm of root (Rieger, 2006), which ensures a high yield of planting material.

Why this is convenient. Unlike root suckers, which must be separated from the bush with a clod of earth and roots, root cuttings allow you to obtain many plants from a small amount of root material. They are compact, easy to store and transport, and with proper preparation give a survival rate of 70–90% (Trunov et al., 2012).

When to harvest root cuttings

The best time is autumn (October–November), after leaf fall, when the plants have entered dormancy. The roots have accumulated maximum reserve nutrients, which ensures good development of young shoots after planting (Crandall, 1995; Rieger, 2006).

Early spring harvesting is also acceptable — before bud break, but in this case the roots have fewer nutrients and the yield of seedlings may be lower. Therefore, autumn harvesting is preferable (Dankov, 2015).

How to select and cut root cuttings

Planting root cuttings in open ground

This method gives good results in regions with mild winters and sufficient moisture.

1. Prepare the bed. The soil should be loose, fertile, and weed‑free. Apply humus or compost (1–2 buckets per 1 m²), dig to a spade's depth.

2. Make furrows 5–8 cm deep with row spacing of 40–70 cm. The wider the row spacing, the easier it is to care for the plants (Dankov, 2015).

3. Lay the cuttings horizontally on the bottom of the furrow at a distance of 10–15 cm from each other. Horizontal placement ensures uniform bud awakening along the entire length of the cutting: several shoots will grow from them, which can then be divided (Crandall, 1995; Kurennoi et al., 1985). Vertical planting gives only one shoot from the upper bud, which reduces the output of seedlings.

4. Cover with soil to a layer of 5–8 cm and lightly firm so that the cuttings are in close contact with the soil. Water (at least 10–15 L per 1 m²) and mulch with peat, sawdust or humus 2–3 cm thick to retain moisture and protect against weeds (Trunov et al., 2012).

5. Care. During the season, keep the soil moist, regularly loosen the rows and remove weeds. By autumn, full‑fledged annual shoots with roots will grow from the cuttings, which can be dug up and transplanted to a permanent place (Crandall, 1995).

Expected yield. With proper agricultural technology, 60–100 thousand root cuttings are obtained from 1 ha, from which 35–60 thousand standard seedlings grow by autumn (Dankov, 2015).

Alternative method — forcing in boxes

This method accelerates the production of seedlings and is especially convenient for northern regions, where spring is short and summer is cool. It also allows you to obtain green sprouts that can be used for subsequent rooting (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

1. In February–March, take the cuttings from storage and plant them in boxes or containers with loose soil substrate (a mixture of peat and sand, or commercial seedling soil).

2. Planting: lay the cuttings horizontally at a depth of 4–5 cm, at a distance of 3–5 cm from each other. This is dense planting — up to 500 cuttings can be placed per 1 m² (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

3. Conditions for bud awakening: place the boxes in a room with a temperature of +18…+20 °C, moderate humidity and diffused light. After 3–4 weeks, green sprouts (etiolated shoots) will appear from the buds on the cuttings. When the sprouts reach 3–5 cm and unfold 2–3 leaves, they can be used for further rooting (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

4. Cutting the sprouts: carefully cut the sprouts at the very base (1–2 cm below the substrate surface). Treat the bases with rooting stimulants (IBA, heteroauxin or "Kornevin") and plant them in separate pots or cassettes with moist substrate for rooting. Rooting temperature — +24…+26 °C, high air humidity (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

5. Growing on. In May–June, rooted sprouts are planted in open ground for further growth (nursery bed) and by autumn standard seedlings are obtained.

Advantage of this method: from one root cutting you can get several green sprouts, and then several seedlings, which sharply increases the propagation coefficient (Yaroslavtsev, 2003). In addition, forcing in boxes allows you to control the health of the material and discard infected specimens at an early stage.

Features for blackberries

Erect blackberry varieties are propagated by root cuttings in the same way as raspberries. However, for blackberries, preference is given to young roots (1–3 years old) with a diameter of 0.3–1.3 cm. Cutting length — 5–8 cm (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

Important warning for thornless varieties. Many thornless blackberry varieties (e.g., 'Thornless Evergreen', 'Thornless Logan') are periclinal chimeras. The mutation that removes thorns affects only the outer layer of shoot tissues, but not the inner layers of the root. When such varieties are propagated by root cuttings or root suckers, thorny plants grow because new shoots form from internal tissues where the genes for thorniness are preserved (Rieger, 2006). Therefore, for thornless blackberries, root cuttings are not used — green cuttings, tip layering or tissue culture are applied (Rieger, 2006; Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

Typical mistakes when propagating by root cuttings

1. Using roots with signs of disease. If the root is dark, soft, has growths (nodules) or spots — the cuttings will be diseased or die. Such roots should be discarded immediately (Potapov et al., 2000; Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

2. Incorrect diameter of cuttings. Too thin (< 2 mm) — give weak shoots; too thick (> 6 mm) — have few buds, reducing the yield of seedlings (Crandall, 1995; Dankov, 2015).

3. Drying out cuttings before planting or during storage. Root cuttings quickly lose moisture if not packed in a moist substrate. Dried cuttings do not germinate. Store them only in a moist environment (moist sand, peat, sawdust) at 0…+4 °C (Trunov et al., 2012; Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

4. Vertical planting of cuttings. If planted vertically (like a stem cutting), only the upper bud will sprout, giving one plant. Horizontal planting gives several shoots, increasing the output of planting material by 3–5 times (Crandall, 1995; Kurennoi et al., 1985).

5. Too deep or too shallow planting. A depth of 5–8 cm is optimal: at shallower depths the cuttings may dry out; at deeper depths germination is delayed or shoots have difficulty emerging (Crandall, 1995; Dankov, 2015).

6. Ignoring variety purity. If cuttings are harvested from different varieties without labelling them, you may confuse varieties when planting. Always label each bundle of cuttings with a tag indicating the variety (Potapov et al., 2000).

Summary. Root cuttings are one of the most effective and economical ways to propagate raspberries. With proper harvesting, storage and planting, you can obtain hundreds of seedlings from one mother bush. This method is especially indispensable for varieties with limited suckering, including many remontant forms. However, remember the restriction for thornless blackberries — root cuttings are not suitable for them.

What is the essence of the method and why does it work?

In the leaves of young shoots, substances that stimulate root formation are synthesised — primarily auxins (indoleacetic acid) and special co‑factors (e.g., rhizocaline). These compounds move down the stem and at the cut site trigger the process of forming adventitious roots (Westwood, 1993). Therefore, the presence of leaves on the cutting is critically important: without them, roots do not form or form very weakly.

Unlike hardwood cuttings, in green cuttings the tissues are still actively dividing (cambium is working), which accelerates wound healing and root system formation. But this also has a downside: such cuttings are very sensitive to drying out, so they require constant high air humidity.

When to harvest shoots

The optimal time is June–July, when shoots are in the semi‑hardened phase. This is the moment when the shoot has already grown enough but has not yet completely lignified: it is flexible, bends but does not break, and the bark begins to darken at the base (Tarasov, 1981; Trunov et al., 2012).

Why this timing. At the beginning of growth, shoots are too tender and quickly lose moisture, easily rot. At the end of the season, tissues lignify, cell division slows down, and roots form worse. The semi‑hardened phase is the optimal compromise between tissue regeneration capacity and resistance to adverse conditions (Westwood, 1993).

In northern regions, the time shifts to late June – early July; in southern regions — to May–June. Do not rely on the calendar but on the condition of the shoots (Trunov et al., 2012).

How to select and cut cuttings

Treatment with rooting stimulants

Although raspberries root relatively easily, treatment with stimulants significantly accelerates the process and increases the rooting percentage, especially for valuable or difficult‑to‑root varieties (Tarasov, 1981; Westwood, 1993).

Treatment options:

How to prepare an aqueous solution. First dissolve the preparation in a small amount of alcohol, then add water to the required volume. The solution temperature is 18–22 °C. At higher temperatures, stimulants can have a toxic effect; at lower temperatures, effectiveness decreases (Tarasov, 1981).

How to treat. Tie the cuttings in bundles of 20–30 pieces so that the bases are at the same level, and immerse them in the solution to a depth of 2–4 cm (up to the leaves). After treatment, rinse the lower ends with clean water and plant (Tarasov, 1981).

Planting and rooting conditions

Care after rooting

Roots begin to appear after 2–3 weeks. As soon as this happens (you can check by gently pulling the cutting — it resists), the watering regime changes:

• The frequency of spraying is gradually reduced, accustoming the plants to drier air.
• After 1–1.5 months, when the root system is sufficiently developed, the film or cover is removed completely (Tarasov, 1981; Trunov et al., 2012).
• Feed with phosphorus‑potassium fertilisers (e.g., superphosphate 40–50 g + potassium salt 20–25 g per 10 L of water) at intervals of 7–10 days (Trunov et al., 2012).

What to do with rooted cuttings

There are two options:

1. Leave on the beds until autumn (if climate permits), covering with mulch and protecting from frost. In spring, plant out for growing in a nursery bed.

2. Dig up in autumn and store until spring at 0…+2 °C in plastic bags with moist sand or peat (Tarasov, 1981; Trunov et al., 2012).

In spring, plants are planted in a nursery bed for growing on a 70×10–15 cm scheme. By autumn, standard seedlings suitable for planting in a permanent place grow (Tarasov, 1981).

Green cuttings at home

If you do not have a greenhouse with a fogging system, you can use simple cold frames or film over a frame. The main thing is to ensure high humidity: cover the boxes with transparent film or glass and spray the cuttings daily several times a day with a sprayer. In hot weather, spraying is needed every 30–60 minutes. Shading is mandatory.

For small volumes (20–50 cuttings), you can use ordinary flower pots with a transparent plastic bag on top — you get a "mini‑greenhouse". This method gives good results with careful care.

Features for blackberries and remontant varieties

• Blackberries also propagate well by green cuttings, especially under artificial mist. Rooting depends on the variety, but averages 60–80% (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).
• Remontant raspberries when green‑cuttings may occasionally flower in the year of rooting. Flower stalks should be removed so that energy goes to root and shoot development, not to fruiting (Dankov, 2015).

Typical mistakes

1. Drying out cuttings in the first weeks — the most common cause of death. If the water film on the leaves disappears even for a short time, cuttings wilt and die. Constantly monitor the operation of the humidification system (Tarasov, 1981).

2. Using non‑sterile substrate — leads to rotting of the lower part of the cutting ("black leg"). The substrate for cuttings must be clean (Trunov et al., 2012).

3. Too deep planting — the lower part of the cutting rots. A depth of 2–3 cm is optimal (Tarasov, 1981).

4. Violation of the temperature regime — overheating or overcooling. At temperatures below 18 °C, root formation slows greatly; above 30 °C, cuttings may rot or get burned. Control the temperature (Trunov et al., 2012).

5. Overcrowding — cuttings touch each other with leaves, worsening ventilation and promoting fungal diseases. Follow the planting scheme (Tarasov, 1981).

6. Transplanting too early — a weak root system cannot withstand transplanting. Wait until the roots are well developed (at least 3–5 roots 3–5 cm long) (Trunov et al., 2012).

Summary. Green cuttings are a more labour‑intensive but very effective method. When all conditions are met, it gives a high yield of quality seedlings and allows rapid propagation of valuable varieties. This is an excellent choice for the gardener willing to devote attention and time, as well as for those who want to obtain many plants from limited mother material.

Why hardwood cuttings root worse

Hardwood cuttings have no leaves that produce auxins and other root‑forming substances. The rooting process is slower, relying on internal reserves of tissues. In addition, the cambium in a dormant shoot is less active than in a growing one, so cell division at the cut site is delayed (Westwood, 1993; Trunov et al., 2012).

However, if you create conditions close to natural (moist soil, gradual warming in spring) and use stimulants, many raspberry varieties give an acceptable yield of seedlings.

When to harvest hardwood cuttings

The best time is late autumn (November), after stable cold weather sets in but before severe frosts. At this time, annual shoots are fully mature, have accumulated reserve substances and are in deep dormancy (Trunov et al., 2012; Potapov et al., 2000).

Harvesting in early winter (December) is acceptable in regions with mild climates, or early spring before bud swelling, if the winter was mild and the shoots did not freeze (Trunov et al., 2012). However, autumn harvesting is preferable: cuttings undergo natural cooling, which increases their viability.

Why you should not take frozen shoots. Even slight freezing damages the cambium and buds, and such cuttings almost never root or give weak plants. If the winter was severe, it is better to postpone harvesting until spring, carefully assessing the condition of the shoots (Trunov et al., 2012).

How to select and cut cuttings

Storage of cuttings until planting

Cuttings can be stored at rest for 2–4 months. The task is to keep them alive, avoiding both drying out and premature sprouting.

Main storage methods:

1. In a cellar or basement. Tie cuttings in bundles, place in boxes and cover with moist sand, sawdust or peat (moisture such that the substrate does not dust but is not wet). Storage temperature — 0…+2 °C (Potapov et al., 2000; Trunov et al., 2012). Periodically check the moisture of the substrate — if necessary, lightly moisten.

2. In plastic bags. Place cuttings in thick plastic bags with a small amount of moist substrate (just sawdust), tie the bags leaving a small hole for gas exchange. Store at 0…+2 °C. This method more reliably prevents drying out, but requires periodic checking for mould (Trunov et al., 2012).

3. In a trench on the plot. In a place where water does not stagnate, dig a trench 40–50 cm deep. Place cuttings vertically or obliquely, cover with moist soil to a layer of 20–25 cm, and cover with straw or snow on top. This method is suitable for regions with snowy winters (Trunov et al., 2012; Potapov et al., 2000).

4. In a snow pile. Tie cuttings in bundles, lay on the ground, cover with a layer of snow 1–1.5 m thick and cover with straw or sawdust to prevent the snow from melting early in spring. This is a reliable method, but requires sufficient snow cover (Trunov et al., 2012).

What not to do. Do not store cuttings in a dry room — they will dry out and lose viability. Do not allow over‑moistening and water stagnation — cuttings will rot or become mouldy. Do not keep them at temperatures above +5 °C — buds may start growing too early (Potapov et al., 2000).

Preparation for planting and treatment with stimulants

Before planting (usually a day before), take the cuttings out of storage and inspect. Remove cuttings with signs of mould, blackened cuts or swollen buds (they have already started to grow — such plants root worse).

To increase rooting, treatment with stimulants is recommended:

• Aqueous solution of IBA (25–50 mg/L) — immerse the lower part of the cuttings (3–5 cm) in the solution for 12–24 hours (Trunov et al., 2012; Tarasov, 1981).
• Heteroauxin — concentration 50–100 mg/L, treatment time 12–18 hours (Tarasov, 1981).
• Powder preparations ("Kornevin", "Ukorenit") — dip the lower part of the cutting in powder immediately before planting. This is the simplest option for the amateur gardener.

Before planting, the lower cuts can be slightly renewed, making a fresh cut immediately before immersion in solution or powder.

Planting hardwood cuttings

Planting dates depend on the region:

• In southern regions with mild winters, autumn planting (November) is possible — cuttings root partially in autumn and continue in spring. But the risk of freezing is higher, so in the middle zone and further north, spring planting is preferred (Trunov et al., 2012).
• In the middle zone and northern regions, cuttings are planted early spring, as soon as the soil thaws and dries (April) (Potapov et al., 2000).

Planting technique:

1. Prepare a bed or nursery: the soil should be loose, fertile, and weed‑free. Dig to a spade's depth, apply humus or compost (1–2 buckets per 1 m²) (Trunov et al., 2012).

2. Make furrows 10–15 cm deep with row spacing of 40–70 cm (Trunov et al., 2012).

3. Plant cuttings obliquely, at an angle of 45°, embedding them in the soil so that 1–2 buds remain above the surface (usually the upper one). Distance between cuttings in the row — 10–15 cm (Potapov et al., 2000; Trunov et al., 2012).

Why oblique planting. With oblique planting, the lower part of the cutting is in a warmer and moister soil layer, which stimulates root formation. In addition, the slope improves aeration of the root formation zone and facilitates subsequent hilling (Potapov et al., 2000; Trunov et al., 2012).

4. Cover the cuttings with soil, firm (to eliminate voids) and water abundantly (at least 10–15 L per 1 m²).

5. Mulch the surface with peat, humus or sawdust in a layer of 2–3 cm to retain moisture and protect against weeds (Trunov et al., 2012).

Care of cuttings in the first season

1. Watering. In the first weeks after planting, the soil should be constantly moist (but without waterlogging). Water as it dries; in dry weather, 1–2 times a week (Potapov et al., 2000).

2. Loosening and weeding. Regularly loosen the rows and remove weeds that compete with young plants for moisture and nutrition (Trunov et al., 2012).

3. Fertilising. One month after planting, you can apply a complex mineral fertiliser (e.g., nitroammophoska — 20–30 g per 1 m²) to stimulate shoot growth (Trunov et al., 2012).

4. Pinching. When shoots reach 15–20 cm in height, the tips can be pinched to induce branching and obtain more compact bushes (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

By autumn, annual shoots with a root system grow from the cuttings. They can be dug up and transplanted to a permanent place, or left until spring (in southern regions) or covered for winter (in the middle zone).

When this method is especially useful

• If you do not have a greenhouse or cold frame for green cuttings.
• If you want to propagate raspberries with minimal equipment and labour.
• For propagating some easily rooted varieties and forms (e.g., some clonal rootstocks) (Trunov et al., 2012).

Important. Note that the yield of standard seedlings with this method in open ground usually does not exceed 40–60% of the number of planted cuttings (Trunov et al., 2012). Therefore, if you need many seedlings of a valuable variety, it is better to use green cuttings or root cuttings.

Features for blackberries and remontant raspberries

• Blackberries (especially erect varieties) can also be propagated by hardwood cuttings, but rooting is even lower than in raspberries. For blackberries, this method is rarely used (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).
• Remontant raspberries with hardwood cuttings sometimes give heterogeneous material — some cuttings may flower in the first year. Flower stalks should be removed to avoid weakening the plant (Dankov, 2015).

Typical mistakes

1. Harvesting too early or too late. Early harvesting (before leaf fall) — shoots are not mature, store and root poorly. Late (in severe frost) — tissues freeze, buds are damaged. The optimal period is after stable cold weather but before severe frosts (Trunov et al., 2012).

2. Storage in a dry room. Cuttings quickly lose moisture and become non‑viable. Always store them in a moist environment (Potapov et al., 2000).

3. Planting dried‑out cuttings. If cuttings have lost turgor, they will not root. Before planting, check — healthy cuttings are elastic, bark is smooth, buds are firm. If a cutting is shrivelled — discard it (Trunov et al., 2012).

4. Vertical planting (too deep). With vertical planting, especially if more than 2 buds are buried, shoot growth slows down and cuttings often rot. Plant obliquely, leaving 1–2 buds above the surface (Potapov et al., 2000).

5. Neglecting stimulant treatment. For raspberries this is especially important, since rooting of hardwood cuttings is already low. Stimulant treatment can increase rooting by 20–30% (Tarasov, 1981; Trunov et al., 2012).

Summary. Propagation by hardwood cuttings is a simple and accessible method that, with proper technique, gives acceptable results. It does not require greenhouses or special equipment, so it is suitable for gardeners who want to obtain planting material without extra hassle. However, keep in mind that the yield of seedlings with this method is lower than with green cuttings, so for valuable or difficult‑to‑root varieties it is better to choose more productive methods.

What is the essence of the method and when is it used?

Each adult raspberry bush is actually a collection of several independent plants — particulae. Each particula has its own root system, rhizome and one or several shoots. When dividing the bush, these parts are carefully separated and planted individually (Kurennoi et al., 1985).

When division is especially relevant:

• Remontant varieties that produce few root suckers (Dankov, 2015; Yaroslavtsev, 2003).
• Valuable and rare varieties of which you have only one bush and it does not produce suckers.
• Old, neglected bushes that have overgrown but lost productivity — division rejuvenates the plant (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).
• If you need only a few seedlings for yourself or for exchange.

Important. Division is not a method of mass propagation. From one bush you will get 3–5, at most 7–8 divisions. If you need many seedlings, use root cuttings or green cuttings.

When to divide the bush

Optimal timing is early spring (before bud break) or autumn (after leaf fall). At this time, the plant is dormant, reducing transplant stress (Kurennoi et al., 1985; Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

For the middle zone, it is better to choose early spring: plants have time to root and strengthen before winter. Spring division is preferable because autumn divisions may suffer from frost if they do not root well.

For southern regions with mild winters, autumn division is acceptable (October–November), but after division be sure to mulch the root zone (Dankov, 2015).

How to choose a bush for division

The bush must meet several requirements:

1. Age — 3–5 years. Young bushes (1–2 years) have not grown enough to divide. Old ones (more than 7–8 years) often have a weakened root system and recover poorly after division (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

2. Health. The bush must not show signs of viral diseases (leaf mosaic, proliferation, dwarfism), fungal infections (spots on shoots) or pests (galls, larval tunnels). If in doubt — do not take such a bush to avoid spreading infection (Potapov et al., 2000; Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

3. Yield and typicality. Choose bushes that for 2–3 years have consistently given a good harvest of berries typical of the variety in size, shape and taste. It is by these characteristics that you will evaluate the preservation of the variety in the divisions (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

4. Number of shoots. The bush should have at least 5–6 strong one‑year‑old shoots so that each division gets 1–2 quality shoots (or well‑developed replacement buds) (Kurennoi et al., 1985).

Step‑by‑step instruction for division

Features for remontant raspberries

Remontant varieties produce fewer root suckers, so division is one of the main ways to preserve a variety if you have only one bush (Dankov, 2015; Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

Important nuance. When dividing remontant raspberries, pay attention to which shoots remain on the division:

• If you leave shoots of the current year, they may produce an autumn harvest in the same season (a characteristic of remontant varieties), but this will weaken the plant and may reduce its winter hardiness. It is better to remove flower stalks in the first year and allow the plant to root (Dankov, 2015).
• For propagation, it is better to take divisions with well‑developed replacement buds on the rhizome, rather than with large shoots. This will give a stronger plant in the next season (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

Rejuvenation of old bushes through division

If you have an old bush (7–10 years) that has become less productive, it can be rejuvenated by division. During division, old, spent parts of the rhizome are removed, leaving only young, active areas with strong buds. Divisions from an old bush often give stronger growth than the mother plant and can bear fruit for another 3–5 years (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

Signs that a bush needs dividing:

• Yield noticeably decreased.
• Shoots have become smaller and thinner.
• Many dead or weak shoots.
• The bush has spread widely.

Alternative to division — rejuvenation without digging

If the bush is old but you are sorry to divide it or it is difficult, you can do this:

• In spring, before bud break, cut out all old (older than 2 years) shoots at ground level.
• Leave 5–6 of the strongest young shoots.
• Cover the base of the bush with fertile soil or compost to a layer of 5–8 cm.
• During the summer, from the remaining buds on the rhizome, new strong shoots will grow — the bush will rejuvenate and restore productivity (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

This method does not produce new plants, but prolongs the life of an old bush.

Typical mistakes when dividing

1. Dividing diseased bushes. If the mother plant is infected with viruses or fungal diseases, all divisions will also be diseased. Diseases do not disappear with division, but only spread. Therefore — only healthy bushes! (Potapov et al., 2000; Yaroslavtsev, 2003)

2. Too small divisions. If each part is too small (weak root system, 1–2 small buds), the plant takes a long time and with difficulty to establish, often dies. Do not be greedy — better to get 3–4 strong divisions than 6–8 weak ones (Kurennoi et al., 1985).

3. Keeping divisions in the air for too long. Raspberry roots are very sensitive to drying out. Even 15–20 minutes in the wind can reduce survival. Always keep divisions in a moist environment (water, damp cloth, plastic bag) (Crandall, 1995).

4. Planting in dry soil. With insufficient moisture, roots do not adapt, and the plant dies or suffers for a long time. Abundant watering after planting is mandatory. In dry weather, water regularly (Trunov et al., 2012).

5. Burying the root collar. This is one of the most common mistakes. Burying inhibits growth and can cause rotting. Plant at the same depth at which the plant grew before transplanting (Dankov, 2015; Kurennoi et al., 1985).

6. Leaving shoots too long. If the above‑ground part is not shortened, evaporation will be too great, and roots will not be able to supply the plant with water. Shortening to 20–25 cm is critically important for survival (Crandall, 1995).

When division should not be used

• If you have a healthy, vigorous variety that produces many suckers — better to use root suckers or root cuttings. They will give more seedlings with less stress to the mother plant (Crandall, 1995).
• If you need a lot of planting material (more than 10–20 seedlings) — use root cuttings or green cuttings.
• If the bush shows clear signs of viral disease (proliferation, leaf mosaic). In this case, division will only multiply the infection, and the bush will still have to be removed (Potapov et al., 2000).

Summary. Division is a simple and reliable method that is especially valuable for preserving rare and valuable varieties that produce few suckers. It allows you to obtain 3–5 quality seedlings with minimal costs. For mass propagation, this method is not suitable, but as an auxiliary method it is indispensable. When following the rules of selection, division technique and subsequent care, divisions establish at 80–95% and begin to bear fruit as early as the next year.

Main biological features affecting propagation

1. Fewer root suckers. Remontant varieties, as a rule, produce significantly fewer root suckers than ordinary raspberries. This is because the plant's main energy is directed to forming a crop on annual shoots, rather than expanding the root system (Dankov, 2015; Yaroslavtsev, 2003). For the gardener, this means that you cannot get many suckers from one bush — you need to use other methods.

2. More sensitive to viruses. Since remontant varieties form a large volume of vegetative mass in one season, any viral infections manifest faster and more strongly than in ordinary varieties. Yield reduction from viruses is noticeable already in the second year (Potapov et al., 2000). Therefore, healthy starting material for remontant raspberries is critically important.

3. Autumn fruiting consumes resources. If you propagate remontant raspberries and allow young plants to bear fruit in the first year, they become greatly weakened and winter worse. For propagation, it is better to use plants from which flower stalks are removed, so that all energy goes to root and shoot development (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

Which propagation method to choose for remontant raspberries

Root suckers — select the best specimens

In remontant varieties, suckers are few, so each sucker is worth its weight in gold. Select them especially carefully:

• Take only the strongest suckers with a well‑developed root system. Weak specimens will not give a good harvest (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).
• Step back from the bush not 30–40 cm, but 40–50 cm — that is where the most viable suckers are located, which have managed to form their own root system before being shaded by older shoots (Crandall, 1995).
• If there are very few suckers, it is better not to take them, but to use root cuttings — they will give more plants from the same bush.

Important. In remontant varieties, suckers often appear later than in ordinary ones — closer to mid‑summer. Do not rush to dig them out early: let them reach 15–20 cm in height and strengthen (Weber, 2013).

Root cuttings — the optimal choice

Root cuttings for remontant raspberries work especially well for two reasons:

1. Remontant varieties often have a more powerful and branched root system than ordinary ones, because they need to support a large crop on annual shoots. This provides more material for cuttings (Dankov, 2015).

2. With root cuttings, you obtain many plants that are genetically identical to the mother and free of viruses if the original bush was healthy. This is especially important for remontant varieties, which are sensitive to viral infections (Potapov et al., 2000).

Technique is the same as for ordinary raspberries (see chapter 3). The only difference: for remontant varieties, you can take roots of slightly larger diameter (up to 6 mm), as they are more succulent and contain more reserves (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

Advice. If you have only one bush of a valuable remontant variety, use root cuttings as the primary method — this will give the maximum number of seedlings with minimal damage to the mother plant (Crandall, 1995).

Green cuttings — controlling flowering

Green cuttings of remontant raspberries have one peculiarity: they may flower in the year of rooting. This is because in remontant varieties, flower buds are laid on annual shoots early, and if a cutting is taken from a shoot that has already begun differentiation of flower buds, it may produce buds before it is well rooted (Dankov, 2015; Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

What to do: remove all flower stalks that appear on young rooted cuttings immediately, so that the plant does not waste energy on flowering and fruit set. This will allow it to form a strong root system and a vigorous shoot that will give a full harvest the following year (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

When to take shoots for cuttings. In remontant varieties, the semi‑hardened phase occurs slightly earlier than in ordinary ones — do not rely on the calendar but on the condition of the shoots. It is better to take cuttings from the middle and lower part of the shoot, where buds are still vegetative, not floral (Tarasov, 1981; Trunov et al., 2012).

Division — when there is no other option

If a remontant raspberry bush does not produce suckers and is inconvenient for root cuttings (e.g., growing on poor soil where roots are weak), you can use division.

Features for remontant varieties:

• Carry out division early in spring, before shoots start growing. This is especially important for remontant raspberries because they start vegetation earlier than ordinary ones (Dankov, 2015).
• Each division should have 1–2 strong replacement buds on the rhizome, not just current‑year shoots. It is from these buds that new fruiting shoots will grow (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).
• If the division has shoots with flower buds, they can be removed completely or shortened to 5–10 cm so that the plant focuses on rooting (Kurennoi et al., 1985).

Growing remontant raspberry seedlings in a nursery bed

Regardless of the propagation method, the obtained remontant raspberry plants are often planted for growing on (in a nursery bed) for one season before transplanting to a permanent place. This is done to:

• Allow plants to form a powerful root system.
• Let the gardener discard weak or diseased specimens.
• Prevent young plants from fruiting in the first year (in the nursery bed it is easier to protect them from flowering) (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

Planting scheme in the nursery bed: 70 × 10–15 cm. The soil should be fertile, watering regular. In autumn, you will obtain standard seedlings ready for planting in a permanent place (Trunov et al., 2012).

Features of variety replacement and renewal

Remontant varieties bear fruit intensively for 3–4 years, after which productivity declines. Therefore, regular renewal of planting material is especially important for remontant raspberries. Grow new seedlings every 3–4 years to replace ageing bushes (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

Recommendation. Establish a separate mother plot for remontant raspberries, where plants will not bear fruit (remove flower stalks) but will work only as a source of planting material. This will give you healthy, strong suckers and root cuttings without the risk of weakening from fruiting (Dankov, 2015).

Typical mistakes when propagating remontant raspberries

1. Expecting abundant suckers. Remontant varieties produce few suckers. If you hope to get many suckers — you will be disappointed. Use root cuttings and green cuttings as the main methods (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

2. Using shoots with flower buds for cuttings. Such cuttings root worse and flower in the first year, weakening themselves. Take cuttings only with vegetative buds — from the middle and lower part of the shoot (Tarasov, 1981).

3. Propagating from old, weakened bushes. Remontant varieties lose productivity faster. If a bush is older than 5–6 years and gives low yield, its suckers and cuttings will also be weak. Use only young, strong bushes (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

4. Ignoring virus protection. Remontant raspberries are especially sensitive to viruses. If you take material from a bush that was diseased, all seedlings will be infected and the plantation will die in 1–2 years. Buy certified material or use only proven healthy clones (Potapov et al., 2000).

5. Allowing fruiting in the first year. This is one of the most common mistakes of amateur gardeners. Remontant varieties are eager to produce berries in the year of planting. But fruiting in the first year greatly weakens the plant, reduces winter hardiness and future yields. Remove all flower stalks and ovaries in the first season (Yaroslavtsev, 2003; Dankov, 2015).

6. Too late division or cuttings. Remontant raspberries wake up early in spring. If you delay division or cuttings, plants will be sick for a long time and may not have time to prepare for winter. Carry out work at the optimal times for your region (Dankov, 2015).

Comparison: remontant vs ordinary raspberries in propagation

Summary. Propagating remontant raspberries requires a more thoughtful approach than ordinary ones — due to fewer suckers and high sensitivity to viruses and weakening from fruiting. The optimal strategy: use root cuttings as the main method, and green cuttings as a supplementary one, especially if you need to rapidly propagate a valuable variety. Always remove flower stalks in the first year so that plants direct energy to root and shoot development. And remember: healthy starting material is the key to success, so buy planting material from trusted nurseries or use only proven healthy clones.

Why variety traits are transmitted during vegetative propagation

In vegetative propagation (root suckers, cuttings, division), the new plant develops from somatic (non‑reproductive) cells of the mother plant. This means that the offspring is a clone — a genetic copy of the mother. All hereditary traits and properties are fully preserved (Kurennoi et al., 1985; Potapov et al., 2000).

Unlike seed propagation, where gene recombination occurs and offspring turn out heterogeneous, vegetative propagation guarantees that the berries will be exactly the same as on the mother bush (Crandall, 1995). This is the main advantage of vegetative propagation and the foundation of modern variety‑based horticulture.

However, there are important exceptions and risks that you should be aware of.

What can break variety purity

1. Using the wrong plant for propagation. If you made a mistake with the variety when harvesting material or mixed up labels, then the variety that grows will not be the one you planned. This is the simplest but also the most common mistake (Potapov et al., 2000).

2. Mechanical mixing. If different varieties grow nearby, their roots may intertwine, and when harvesting root cuttings you might accidentally take a root from a neighbouring variety. The same with suckers: suckers can appear at a distance of up to 1–2 metres from the mother bush, and if rows of different varieties are planted too closely, suckers become mixed (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

3. Chimeral variability (for thornless blackberries). This is the most insidious case. In some varieties, especially thornless blackberries (e.g., 'Thornless Evergreen', 'Thornless Logan', 'Thornless Boysenberry'), thornlessness is the result of a periclinal chimera. This means that the mutation that removed thorns affected only the outer layer of shoot tissues (epidermis), while the inner tissues (including roots) retained the genes for thorniness. When such varieties are propagated by root cuttings or root suckers (where the shoot forms from internal tissues of the root), thorny plants grow. Thornlessness is preserved only when propagated by green cuttings taken from the upper part of the shoot, or by tip layering (Rieger, 2006; Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

4. Viral degeneration. Viruses and mycoplasmas accumulate in the clone with each generation during vegetative propagation. At first this may be unnoticeable, but after several years the plant loses productivity, berries become smaller, yield drops — the variety seems to "degenerate". In fact, it is not genetic degeneration but the accumulation of infection (Potapov et al., 2000). The solution is to use only healthy starting plants and renew planting material.

5. Spontaneous mutations. Occasionally, random mutations (clonal variability) may arise during vegetative propagation. They are rare, but if you notice a branch on a bush with unusual berries or shoots — it may be a new clone. Some varieties were indeed selected as mutations (e.g., many dwarf or columnar forms). If the mutation improves the properties, you can fix it, but if you want to preserve the original variety, such branches should be removed (Kurennoi et al., 1985).

Practical rules for preserving variety purity

What to do if the variety has already "degenerated"

If you notice that raspberry bushes have begun to produce small, tasteless berries, yield has dropped, and signs of disease have appeared — the variety has likely been affected by viruses or simply aged. In this case:

1. Conduct a thorough aprobation and remove all suspicious bushes.

2. If you still have a few healthy bushes, check them — perhaps not all are affected. Use only the healthiest and most productive for further propagation.

3. If all bushes are affected — you will have to replace the variety entirely. Buy certified material from a trusted nursery (Yaroslavtsev, 2003; Potapov et al., 2000).

Where to buy healthy material. Contact scientific institutions and specialised nurseries that have passed state aprobation and hold a licence for the production of planting material. In Russia, these include, for example, VSTISP (Moscow), the Research Institute of Horticulture of Siberia named after M.A. Lisavenko (Barnaul), South‑Ural Research Institute (Chelyabinsk), SKZNIISiV (Krasnodar) and others (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

Typical mistakes

1. Lack of labelling. The most common and most dangerous mistake. Without labels, varieties inevitably get mixed up. Labelling must be permanent and reliable (Potapov et al., 2000).

2. Propagating from bushes not checked for yield. If you took material from a young bush that has not yet shown its properties, there is a risk of obtaining seedlings with characteristics that do not meet expectations (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

3. Using root cuttings for thornless blackberries. This guarantees loss of thornlessness. Remember: for thornless blackberries — only green cuttings or layering (Rieger, 2006).

4. Neglecting aprobation. If you do not check plants every year, variety admixtures and diseased bushes will imperceptibly fill the mother plot, and restoring the purity of the variety will be very difficult (Kurennoi et al., 1985).

5. Planting different varieties too close. Roots intertwine, suckers mix — varieties lose purity. Maintain distance (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

6. Ignoring viral symptoms. If you notice signs of viral disease (spotting, mosaic, dwarfism) — the plant must be removed immediately, even if it is a pity. Diseased plants infect neighbours and produce infected offspring (Potapov et al., 2000).

Summary. Preserving variety traits is a task that requires attention, discipline and a systematic approach. The main components of success: selection of healthy mother plants, proper labelling, spatial isolation of varieties, regular aprobation and renewal of mother plantations. In vegetative propagation, variety traits are fully transmitted, but there are important exceptions — chimerical varieties (thornless blackberries) and viral degeneration. Knowing these nuances, the gardener can preserve a valuable variety for many years. If you purchase planting material, choose only certified nurseries with a good reputation — this is the best guarantee of variety purity.

1. Mistakes in selecting planting material

Mistake 1.1. Using diseased or weakened bushes

Manifestation: seedlings grow poorly, get sick, give low yield, berries become small or deformed.

Cause: viruses, bacteria and fungi are transmitted with sap and tissues during vegetative propagation (Potapov et al., 2000). Even if the mother bush looks outwardly healthy, it may be a latent carrier of viruses. Remontant varieties are especially sensitive to viral load (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

How to avoid: use only verified healthy bushes with good productivity over 2–3 years for propagation. At the slightest suspicion of viral disease (leaf mosaic, proliferation, dwarfism), discard the whole plant. Purchase planting material from certified nurseries (Yaroslavtsev, 2003; Potapov et al., 2000).

Mistake 1.2. Using root cuttings from thornless blackberries

Manifestation: thorny plants grow, although the mother bush was thornless.

Cause: thornlessness in many varieties ('Thornless Evergreen', 'Thornless Logan' etc.) is a periclinal chimera. The mutation affected only the outer layer of shoot tissues, while the roots retained the genes for thorniness. With root cuttings or root sucker propagation, shoots develop from internal tissues where thorns remain (Rieger, 2006).

How to avoid: propagate thornless blackberries only by green cuttings taken from the upper part of the shoot, or by tip layering. Do not use root cuttings or root suckers (Rieger, 2006; Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

Mistake 1.3. Confusing varieties (lack of labelling)

Manifestation: the wrong varieties are planted, mixing of varieties on the plot, loss of valuable forms.

Cause: lack of systematic records and labelling (Potapov et al., 2000).

How to avoid: always label each bundle of cuttings, each batch of suckers, each bush in the mother plot. Use permanent markers, plastic tags, keep a gardener's journal. Do not rely on memory (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

2. Mistakes in harvesting and storage

Mistake 2.1. Wrong harvesting time

Manifestation: cuttings root poorly, rot or dry out.

Cause: each propagation method has its optimal timing (see chapter 1). Too early harvesting (shoots not mature) or too late (freezing, loss of reserves) sharply reduces viability (Crandall, 1995; Trunov et al., 2012).

How to avoid: strictly observe the times given in the table of chapter 1, adjusted for your region. In northern regions, prefer spring planting; in southern — autumn (Dankov, 2015).

Mistake 2.2. Drying out planting material

Manifestation: cuttings do not germinate, suckers do not establish, bark shrivels.

Cause: raspberry roots and cuttings are very sensitive to moisture loss. Even 10–15 minutes in the air can be fatal (Crandall, 1995; Weber, 2013).

How to avoid: when harvesting material, immediately place it in a moist environment — water, damp cloth, plastic bag. Store only in a moist substrate (sand, peat, sawdust) at 0…+4 °C (Trunov et al., 2012). When transporting, wrap roots in damp burlap and plastic (Potapov et al., 2000).

Mistake 2.3. Incorrect storage (temperature, humidity)

Manifestation: cuttings become mouldy, rot, or conversely, dry out, buds germinate prematurely.

Cause: storage regime is violated. At too high temperature (+5 °C and above), buds start growing — such cuttings establish poorly. At insufficient humidity, cuttings dry out. At excessive — they rot (Trunov et al., 2012).

How to avoid: store cuttings at 0…+2 °C in moist (but not wet!) sand, sawdust or peat. Regularly check the condition of the substrate and ventilate if necessary. Use plastic bags with small holes for gas exchange (Potapov et al., 2000).

3. Mistakes in planting and rooting

Mistake 3.1. Burying the root collar

Manifestation: plants grow poorly, are stunted, may rot and die.

Cause: raspberries do not tolerate deep planting. The root collar (the transition point from roots to shoots) should be at soil level or slightly above. Burying disrupts gas exchange, provokes rotting and delays growth (Dankov, 2015; Kurennoi et al., 1985).

How to avoid: plant at the same depth at which the plant grew before transplanting. Use the soil mark on the stem as a guide — it is a noticeable boundary. If planting a container‑grown seedling, the soil level should match the level in the container (Crandall, 1995).

Mistake 3.2. Vertical planting of root cuttings

Manifestation: only one shoot grows from the cutting, seedling yield is low.

Cause: in vertical planting, only the upper bud awakens. In horizontal planting, several buds along the entire length of the cutting sprout, giving 3–5 shoots from one cutting (Crandall, 1995; Kurennoi et al., 1985).

How to avoid: always plant root cuttings horizontally at a depth of 5–8 cm (Crandall, 1995; Dankov, 2015).

Mistake 3.3. Incorrect depth of planting cuttings

Manifestation: cuttings dry out or rot, do not root.

Cause: for green cuttings, optimal depth is 2–3 cm (Tarasov, 1981). Too shallow — they dry out; too deep — rot or shoots have difficulty emerging. For hardwood cuttings, depth should be 10–15 cm (Trunov et al., 2012).

How to avoid: follow the recommendations for each method (see corresponding chapters). After planting, firm the soil around the cutting for close contact (Tarasov, 1981).

Mistake 3.4. Planting in unprepared or non‑sterile substrate (for cuttings)

Manifestation: cuttings rot, affected by "black leg", die.

Cause: for rooting green and hardwood cuttings, a light, air‑permeable substrate without pathogens is needed. Ordinary garden soil often contains fungal spores and bacteria that, at high humidity, cause rotting (Tarasov, 1981; Trunov et al., 2012).

How to avoid: use a mixture of peat and coarse sand (1:1), perlite, vermiculite or clean river sand. Before use, the substrate can be steamed or watered with a weak solution of potassium permanganate (Trunov et al., 2012).

Mistake 3.5. Too dense planting or overcrowding

Manifestation: cuttings are affected by fungal diseases, poorly ventilated, etiolated.

Cause: overcrowding causes leaves of cuttings to touch each other, worsening air circulation and creating conditions for mould and rot (Tarasov, 1981).

How to avoid: follow planting schemes: for green cuttings — 5×5 cm or 7×5 cm (Tarasov, 1981); for hardwood — 10–15 cm between cuttings and 40–70 cm between rows (Trunov et al., 2012).

4. Mistakes in caring for rooting plants

Mistake 4.1. Violation of humidity regime in green cuttings

Manifestation: cuttings wilt and die in the first days–weeks.

Cause: green cuttings have no roots; they obtain moisture only through leaves from the air. If humidity drops below 90%, leaves lose turgor and the cutting dies (Tarasov, 1981; Trunov et al., 2012).

How to avoid: ensure constant fine mist spraying (fog) or regular (several times a day) manual spraying in a cold frame. Control that a film of water is always on the leaves (Tarasov, 1981).

Mistake 4.2. Overheating or overcooling during rooting

Manifestation: slow root formation, rotting, death of cuttings.

Cause: optimal temperature for rooting is +22…+28 °C. At temperatures below +18 °C, the process slows greatly; above +30 °C, cuttings may get burned or rot (Westwood, 1993; Tarasov, 1981).

How to avoid: control the temperature in the greenhouse or cold frame. In hot weather, use shading and ventilation. In cool weather, use substrate heating (special cables) (Trunov et al., 2012).

Mistake 4.3. Allowing fruiting in the first year (especially for remontant varieties)

Manifestation: plants weaken, winter poorly, reduce yields in subsequent years.

Cause: fruiting requires enormous resources. If a rooted plant, especially remontant, flowers and fruits in the year of planting, it does not have time to develop a strong root system and store nutrients for winter (Yaroslavtsev, 2003; Dankov, 2015).

How to avoid: remove all flower stalks and ovaries on young plants in the first season. Allow them to focus on root and shoot growth (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

Mistake 4.4. Insufficient watering after transplanting

Manifestation: poor establishment, drying of shoots, death.

Cause: after transplanting, the root system is damaged and cannot quickly supply the plant with water. Constant soil moisture is needed for adaptation (Crandall, 1995; Trunov et al., 2012).

How to avoid: water abundantly immediately after planting and then regularly, especially in the first 2–3 weeks. In dry weather, water 1–2 times a week (Trunov et al., 2012). Mulch the root zone to retain moisture (Potapov et al., 2000).

Mistake 4.5. Lack of shading after transplanting green suckers or cuttings

Manifestation: plants wilt, leaves get burned, survival low.

Cause: young plants have a weak root system, and leaves evaporate a lot of moisture. Direct sun increases evaporation and can lead to death (Crandall, 1995; Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

How to avoid: shade transplanted green suckers and rooted cuttings in the first 5–7 days. Use non‑woven cover material, screens, branches or neighbouring tall plants (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

5. Mistakes in selection and aprobation

Mistake 5.1. Propagating from bushes without checking variety purity and yield

Manifestation: obtaining the wrong variety or weak, low‑productive plants.

Cause: young bushes or bushes that have not yet shown their properties may give offspring with undesirable characteristics (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

How to avoid: select for propagation only bushes that you have observed for 2–3 years and that consistently give a good harvest of typical berries (Potapov et al., 2000). Regularly conduct aprobation of mother plantations (Kurennoi et al., 1985).

Mistake 5.2. Ignoring viral symptoms

Manifestation: gradual degeneration of the plantation, yield decline, loss of varietal qualities.

Cause: viruses and mycoplasmas are transmitted with planting material and accumulate with each generation. Diseased plants are a source of infection for neighbours (Potapov et al., 2000).

How to avoid: at the slightest suspicion of viral disease (mosaic, spotting, proliferation, berry deformation), immediately remove the whole plant with roots and destroy (burn). Do not use its parts for propagation (Potapov et al., 2000; Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

6. Mistakes in preserving variety purity

Mistake 6.1. Planting different varieties too close

Manifestation: mixing of varieties, confusion of suckers, loss of purity.

Cause: raspberry roots spread 1–2 metres, and suckers from different varieties intertwine (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

How to avoid: plant different varieties at a distance of at least 2–3 metres from each other. If necessary, dig barriers of slate or film to a depth of 30–40 cm (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

Mistake 6.2. Lack of regular removal of admixtures

Manifestation: gradual contamination of the mother plot with non‑varietal plants.

Cause: seeds brought by birds or wind may produce seedlings; also suckers from neighbouring varieties may appear. If not removed, over time they will outcompete the desired variety (Potapov et al., 2000).

How to avoid: regularly, at least once a season, inspect the mother plot and remove all plants that differ in external traits (bush shape, shoot colour, leaf type, thorniness) (Kurennoi et al., 1985). During fruiting, check that berries match the variety characteristics (Yaroslavtsev, 2003).

Summary. Most mistakes in propagating raspberries are related to three main causes: using unhealthy or unchecked material, violating timing and storage conditions, and failing to follow planting techniques. To avoid disappointments, follow simple rules: select only healthy, verified bushes, strictly observe timing, maintain optimal humidity and temperature, and do not neglect labelling and aprobation. Even if you think you are doing everything correctly, re‑read the relevant section — perhaps you have missed some detail. Remember: raspberry is a grateful crop, and with the right approach it will reward you with abundant harvests and healthy plants for many years.