Shaping and Pruning

Growth

Pruning is a powerful tool for managing tree growth. Removing part of the branches alters the balance between the above-ground part and the root system. When we cut a branch, we remove not only the tissue but also stored nutrients and the growth points that produce hormones (Ferree & Schupp, 2003).

How does this work? In each branch, there is a phenomenon scientists call apical dominance — the terminal bud suppresses the development of lateral buds using hormones (auxins). When we remove the tip of a shoot, this hormonal inhibition is lifted, and the lateral buds awaken, producing new shoots (Phillips, 2005). This is precisely why pruning stimulates branching.

It's important to understand: pruning always weakens the tree as a whole but stimulates growth at the cut site (Westwood, 1993). The more we shorten a branch, the more powerful the regrowth response will be, but the more we weaken the overall tree. Therefore, pruning young trees aimed at shaping the crown always somewhat delays the onset of fruiting — the tree spends energy on recovery.

At the same time, summer pruning acts differently: by removing leaves, we reduce the tree's photosynthetic capacity, which slows growth and redirects resources towards the fruit (Ferree & Schupp, 2003).

Main practical takeaway: Pruning must be thoughtful. Every cut is an intervention in the life of the tree and must have a clear purpose.

Light

This is perhaps the main reason apple trees need annual pruning. Without pruning, the apple tree's crown becomes too dense, and the inner branches are left in the shade (Phillips, 2005).

Why is this critical? To produce quality fruit and set fruit buds for the following year, leaves need at least 30% of full sunlight. When there is less light, branches become barren: they do not set flower buds and eventually die off (Phillips, 2005; Westwood, 1993).

Imagine the apple tree's crown as a fruit production factory. The outer, well-lit branches are the efficient workshops. The inner, shaded ones are unprofitable, useless areas that consume resources but produce no returns.

Pruning solves this problem in two ways:

1. Removing excess branches opens a path for sunlight into the interior of the crown.

2. Forming the correct structure (for example, with a central leader and tiers) ensures uniform illumination of all parts of the tree (Ferree & Schupp, 2003).

The better the crown is illuminated, the:

• higher the fruit quality (colour, size, sugar content);
• more fruit buds are set for the following year;
• fewer problems with diseases, as the crown dries faster after rain.

Yield

The relationship between pruning and yield is not as straightforward as it seems. Intuitively, you might want to leave as many branches as possible on the tree to get more apples. But practice and science say the opposite.

An unpruned tree indeed produces many fruits, but they will be small, pale, and often affected by diseases. Moreover, an overly abundant harvest exhausts the tree, and the following year it may not bloom at all — this phenomenon is called biennial bearing (Phillips, 2005; Westwood, 1993).

Proper pruning solves this problem:

• It reduces the number of fruit buds, but the remaining ones receive more nutrition and grow large and high-quality.
• It removes old, low-productivity wood, stimulating the growth of new, more productive shoots.
• It improves illumination and, consequently, fruit nutrition.

How do different types of pruning work?

• Thinning (removing entire branches at the base) hardly stimulates vegetative growth but improves illumination and, hence, fruit quality.
• Heading back (cutting back part of a branch) stimulates the growth of new shoots, which rejuvenates the crown but may reduce the current year's fruit set (Ferree & Schupp, 2003; Westwood, 1993).

Research shows that on a bearing apple tree, thinning provides the best balance between yield and fruit quality. Heading back on bearing trees is mainly used for rejuvenation and stimulating growth where it has weakened (Westwood, 1993).

Longevity

Proper pruning is the key to a long and productive life for the apple tree. A tree without pruning quickly ages and becomes susceptible to diseases.

There are several aspects of longevity that pruning ensures:

1. A strong framework. If a strong framework of branches with proper angles of attachment is not formed from the start, branches may break under the weight of the crop or snow. Narrow angles of attachment are particularly dangerous — such branches are weakly attached to the trunk and may eventually break off (Phillips, 2005; Westwood, 1993). Pruning at a young age allows you to leave only the strongest, properly positioned branches.

2. Renewal of fruit wood. In apple trees, fruit-bearing structures (spurs, short shoots, fruit twigs) are most productive at 2–4 years of age. Older structures age, and their fruits become smaller. Pruning, especially rejuvenating pruning, removes old wood and stimulates the growth of new, young shoots that will eventually produce new fruit structures (Krivko, 2014; Westwood, 1993).

3. Resistance to diseases. A dense, poorly ventilated crown is an ideal environment for the development of fungal diseases (scab, fruit rot). Pruning improves ventilation and drying of the crown, reducing the risk of infections (Phillips, 2005).

4. Winter hardiness. Severe pruning, especially in late autumn or early winter, reduces winter hardiness because it stimulates tissues at the cut site, which then lose frost resistance (Ferree & Schupp, 2003). Light and moderate pruning at the right time helps the tree better prepare for winter.

Brief Summary:

Pruning an apple tree addresses four main tasks:

• Manages growth — stimulates branching where needed and inhibits growth where excessive.
• Ensures illumination of the entire crown, without which fruits cannot be of high quality.
• Maintains a balance between vegetative growth and fruiting, ensuring annual harvests of large and tasty apples.
• Extends the life and productivity of the tree by forming a strong framework and renewing fruit wood.

In the following chapters, we will examine in detail exactly how to achieve these goals in practice: how the tree is structured, how to properly shape it, when and what to prune, and how to avoid common mistakes.

Central Leader

What is it? This is the main, vertical shoot that is a continuation of the trunk from the point of the first scaffold branch to the top of the tree. This is the central axis around which the entire crown is built (Krivko, 2014; Westwood, 1993).

Why is it needed? The central leader ensures vertical growth of the tree and serves as the foundation for placing the scaffold branches. In a properly formed crown with a central leader, all branches are subordinate to it: the leader should be higher and stronger than the side branches. This is called subordination (Westwood, 1993; Potapov et al., 2000).

What is important to know when pruning? At a young age, the central leader needs to be preserved and, if necessary, shortened to stimulate the growth of lateral branches. Once the tree reaches the desired height, the central leader can be removed to limit upward growth and improve illumination (Phillips, 2005; Potapov et al., 2000).

Scaffold Branches (Main, First Order)

What are they? These are the large branches that arise directly from the trunk (central leader). They make up the 'skeleton' of the crown — its foundation (Krivko, 2014; Tarasov et al., 1981).

How to choose them? When forming a young tree, you leave 3–5 scaffold branches that:

• are evenly distributed around the trunk (to avoid one-sidedness);
• have an angle of attachment from the trunk of at least 45–60 degrees. Branches with narrower angles are weakly attached to the trunk and may break under the weight of the crop (Phillips, 2005; Westwood, 1993);
• are spaced about 30–50 cm apart vertically along the trunk (for good illumination of all branches).

How to work with them? Scaffold branches are established for the life of the tree. They should be strong and well-lit. During pruning, we do not remove them (except in cases of breakage or disease), but only adjust their growth and maintain subordination.

Semi-Scaffold Branches (Second and Third Order)

What are they? These are medium-sized branches (usually up to 1.5 m long) that arise from scaffold branches (less often from the central leader) (Krivko, 2014; Tarasov et al., 1981). They complement the framework but are not load-bearing.

Their role: Semi-scaffold branches are the transition between the 'framework' and the fruit wood. They bear the main fruit structures and should be regularly renewed. During pruning, they are shortened or completely removed when they age or thicken the crown.

Bearing Wood (Fruit-bearing Twigs)

What are they? These are small, short lateral twigs located on scaffold and semi-scaffold branches. They bear the majority of the crop, which is why they are often called fruit-bearing twigs (Krivko, 2014; Potapov et al., 2000).

Types of bearing twigs on an apple tree (Krivko, 2014; Potapov et al., 2000):

• Spurs — very short (1–3 cm) shoots with a rosette of leaves and one terminal bud, which can be vegetative or flower bud.
• Short shoots — slightly longer (3–12 cm), with more developed buds.
• Fruit twigs — annual shoots 12–25 cm long, often slightly curved.
• Fruit clusters / Fruiting wood — perennial branched structures that develop from spurs, short shoots, and twigs after several years of fruiting.

Why is this important? On apple trees, fruits set on these bearing twigs. Their age, condition, and number determine the yield. The highest quality fruits come from spurs and fruit clusters aged 2–4 years (Phillips, 2005). Old fruiting wood (older than 6–8 years) produces smaller fruits and dries out — these need to be removed or renewed.

Fruit Buds and Fruiting Habits

What are they? This is not a separate type of branch but a general name for all structures on which fruits form. These include spurs, short shoots, fruit twigs, fruit clusters, and fruiting wood (Krivko, 2014).

Types of buds:

• Vegetative (growth) buds — produce shoots and leaves. They are slender and pointed.
• Generative (flower) buds — produce flowers and fruit. They are rounded and larger (Phillips, 2005; Potapov et al., 2000).

Distinction by fruiting habit (Krivko, 2014; Potapov et al., 2000):

• Spur-type varieties (e.g., Antonovka, Golden Delicious, Welsey) bear fruit mainly on spurs and fruit clusters. Their fruit buds are set on older wood.
• Varieties with mixed fruiting (the majority) bear fruit both on spurs and on one-year-old shoots.
• Tip-bearing varieties (e.g., Cortland, Jonathan) bear fruit on the tips of long shoots from the previous year. They require careful pruning to avoid removing all the fruit buds (Phillips, 2005).

Practical takeaway: The gardener must be able to distinguish these structures to avoid removing all the fruit buds during pruning, while also ensuring they do not leave too many old, unproductive branches.

Brief Chapter Summary:

• Central Leader — the main vertical axis, the basis of the crown.
• Scaffold Branches — the load-bearing framework, established once for the tree's life.
• Semi-scaffold Branches — complement the framework and bear the main fruit wood, requiring regular renewal.
• Bearing Wood — small twigs (spurs, short shoots, fruit twigs) that directly yield the harvest. Most productive at 2–4 years of age.
• Different varieties have their fruiting concentrated on different types of structures, which is important to consider during pruning.

Understanding tree structure is the ABCs of gardening. Without knowing the names and roles of the crown parts, it is impossible to approach pruning with understanding. In the next chapter, we will discuss how to apply this knowledge in practice when forming young trees.

Year One After Planting: Laying the Foundation

A young sapling, newly planted in the orchard, has undergone stress: during digging, it lost a significant part of its root system. Now the balance between roots and crown needs to be restored. Therefore, the first pruning is done immediately after planting or early the following spring (depending on the climate) (Potapov et al., 2000; Tarasov et al., 1981).

If the sapling is a one-year-old 'whip' (without side branches):

• It is shortened to a height of 60–90 cm from the ground (Phillips, 2005; Westwood, 1993). The exact height depends on the desired crown form and the vigour of the rootstock. The weaker the rootstock, the lower you can prune.
• Remove all shoots in the lower part (at a height of 30–40 cm from the ground) — this is the future trunk, which should have no branches.

If the sapling is 'branched' (with side branches):

• Select 3–5 strong, well-positioned side branches for the future framework.
• Remove branches with narrow angles of attachment (less than 45 degrees) and those located too low.
• Shorten or completely remove the remaining side branches not selected for the framework.
• The central leader should be 20–30 cm higher than the scaffold branches (Westwood, 1993; Potapov et al., 2000).

Why this works? Shortening the sapling stimulates the awakening of buds below the cut — this is how the future scaffold branches are established. Removing excess branches prevents overcrowding and directs nutrients where they are most needed. Pruning also restores the balance between the above-ground part and the roots damaged during digging (Ferree & Schupp, 2003).

Years 2–4: Selecting and Developing the Framework

During this period, the main framework of the tree — its skeleton — is formed. The main tasks are:

1. Select and retain the correct scaffold branches.

2. Ensure subordination (the central leader dominates over the scaffold branches).

3. Create good angles of attachment.

4. Prevent overcrowding of the crown.

Choosing a Training System

There are several ways to shape a crown. For hobby gardens and small orchards, two systems are most practical.

Four 'Golden' Rules for Forming Young Trees

1. Do not overdo pruning! Severe pruning of young trees delays fruiting by 2–3 years. Use pruning only when truly necessary (Westwood, 1993; Ferree & Schupp, 2003). If in doubt, it is better to leave a branch and bend it later than to remove it.

2. Angles of attachment are more important than quantity. It is better to leave 3–4 branches with correct angles than 6–7 with narrow ones (Phillips, 2005).

3. Regularly check spreaders and ties. They should not cut into the bark. Remove them once branches are fixed in the desired position.

4. Start shaping immediately after planting (or in the spring of the first year). The earlier, the easier it is to manage tree growth (Westwood, 1993).

Common Mistakes

• Crown starting too low. Branches at a height of less than 40–50 cm from the ground make care and harvesting difficult.
• Leaving 'competitors'. Strong vertical shoots near the leader quickly overtake it, disrupting subordination and crown shape.
• Incorrect selection of scaffold branches. Leaving branches with narrow angles or all on one side of the trunk results in a weak and one-sided crown.
• Excessive heading back. If branches are severely shortened every year, the tree will spend energy on shoot growth instead of setting fruit buds.

Brief Chapter Summary:

• Crown formation is established in the first 3–5 years of the tree's life.
• Select 3–5 scaffold branches with angles of attachment 50–60° from the trunk, evenly distributed around it.
• Use spreaders and ties to correct angles and branch direction.
• Subordination is the key principle: the leader is higher and stronger than the scaffold branches.
• The most reliable and versatile system for apples is the central leader (modified leader) system.
• Avoid severe pruning in the early years — it delays fruiting.

In the next chapter, we will move on to maintenance pruning of bearing trees and discuss how to maintain the crown in a productive state throughout the life of the apple tree.

4.1. Goals of Maintenance Pruning

On a bearing apple tree (usually starting from the 5th–7th year after planting), maintenance pruning addresses four key tasks:

1. Maintaining light inside the crown. Without annual thinning, the crown quickly thickens, inner branches die, and fruits become smaller and lose colour.

2. Stimulating the formation of new fruit structures. Old spurs and fruit clusters gradually lose productivity. Pruning stimulates the growth of new shoots, which eventually become fruit-bearing.

3. Preventing biennial bearing. Moderate pruning and removal of excess fruit set help the tree bear fruit annually rather than every other year (Phillips, 2005; Westwood, 1993).

4. Controlling crown size. The tree should not exceed its allocated space (in height and width), otherwise illumination worsens, and care and harvesting become difficult.

4.2. Thinning — The Main Technique

Thinning is the removal of an entire branch (or part of a branching) at its base, at the point of attachment to a larger branch or trunk (Tarasov et al., 1981; Ferree & Schupp, 2003). The cut is made 'flush to the collar' — that is, along the annular swelling (collar) at the base of the branch.

What thinning achieves:

• Improves illumination and ventilation of the crown.
• Hardly stimulates excessive vegetative growth because an entire growing point is removed, not just part of it (Ferree & Schupp, 2003).
• Allows the removal of old, diseased, broken, or incorrectly positioned branches.
• This is the main technique for bearing trees, as it least disrupts the balance between growth and fruiting (Westwood, 1993).

What is removed by thinning:

• Branches growing inward (crowding the centre).
• Branches growing vertically upward ('watersprouts') — they are very vigorous but low-productivity (Phillips, 2005; Westwood, 1993). Important: do not remove all watersprouts at once — leave a few vertical shoots to 'draw off' vigour and prevent the emergence of new watersprouts (Phillips, 2005).
• Branches that rub against or cross each other — these become injured and serve as entry points for infections.
• Drooping, weakened branches with small, poor-quality fruit.
• Branches that are too long and extend beyond the allocated space (they can be removed entirely if they interfere with neighbouring trees).

Rule: When thinning, first remove the largest and oldest branches — this provides more light and stimulates less new growth than numerous small cuts (Ferree & Schupp, 2003).

4.3. Heading Back — When and Why

Heading back (or stubbing) is the removal of a portion of a branch (annual growth or perennial branch) by cutting back to a lateral branch or bud (Tarasov et al., 1981; Ferree & Schupp, 2003).

Effects of heading back:

• Stimulates the awakening of buds below the cut and the formation of new shoots.
• Intensifies growth at the cut site (local effect).
• Helps 'rejuvenate' aging branches by stimulating the growth of new replacement shoots.
• Allows the direction of the branch to be corrected (cutting to an outward-facing bud directs growth outward rather than into the crown).

When heading back is useful:

• On young trees (formative pruning) — to create the framework.
• On aging trees — for rejuvenation (discussed in the next chapter).
• For varieties prone to branch bareness (weak shoot-producing ability) — heading back stimulates the emergence of new shoots (Westwood, 1993).
• To 'subdue' an overly strong branch and even out its growth with the others.

When heading back is undesirable:

• On a bearing tree, heading back removes many fruit buds and stimulates vegetative growth at the expense of fruiting.
• Excessive heading back makes the crown denser, not more open (Tarasov et al., 1981).
• On vigorous trees, heading back provokes even stronger growth.

Practical takeaway: on a bearing apple tree, thinning should prevail over heading back. Use heading back selectively: for rejuvenating individual branches, correcting growth direction, or stimulating branching in varieties with poor shoot production. Only shorten those branches that need it (Ferree & Schupp, 2003; Westwood, 1993).

4.4. Regulating Fruiting (Crop Load Management)

Pruning is not the only way to regulate the crop. To obtain large and quality apples, it is necessary to thin the fruitlets (Phillips, 2005; Westwood, 1993). This is not strictly pruning, but it is closely related and often done at the same time.

Why remove excess fruits?

• An apple tree sets far more flowers and fruitlets than it can support. If the excess is not removed, the fruits will be small, and the tree will become exhausted and may not bloom the following year (biennial bearing) (Phillips, 2005).
• Thinning improves fruit size, colour, and taste.
• Reduces the load on branches, lowering the risk of breakage.

When and how to thin:

• The best time is 2–4 weeks after flowering, when the fruitlets are about 1–2 cm in diameter (Phillips, 2005; Westwood, 1993).
• Leave 1 fruit per every 6–10 cm of branch (space them further apart for large-fruited varieties, closer for small-fruited ones) (Phillips, 2005).
• In each cluster, leave the largest and best-formed fruit (usually the central 'king' bloom, which opened first) (Westwood, 1993).
• Remove damaged or misshapen fruitlets.
• For manual thinning, simply pinch off excess fruitlets with your fingers or use secateurs for short-stemmed varieties (Phillips, 2005).

Organic methods for chemical thinning (for those avoiding synthetic products):

• Spraying with a solution of lime-sulphur or vegetable oil during the flowering period can partially remove excess flowers (Phillips, 2005).
• However, for amateurs, the most reliable and safest method is manual thinning. It is time-consuming but gives full control over the result.

4.5. Variety-Specific Considerations

Different apple varieties bear fruit differently, and this affects the pruning strategy.

Spur-type varieties (Antonovka, Golden Delicious, Welsey, Jonagold, etc.) bear fruit mainly on short spurs and fruit clusters located on older branches. For them:

• Thinning is the main technique. Remove overcrowding branches, leaving well-lit spurs.
• Avoid severe heading back — it removes valuable fruit structures and stimulates shoot growth, delaying fruiting.
• Periodically remove old, overgrown fruit clusters (older than 4–5 years) to make room for new ones.

Varieties with mixed fruiting (most modern varieties: Renet Simirenko, McIntosh, Cortland) bear fruit both on spurs and on annual shoots. For them:

• Both thinning and moderate heading back can be applied.
• When shortening annual shoots, leave 3–5 buds to stimulate the formation of new fruit twigs and spurs (Potapov et al., 2000).

Tip-bearing varieties (e.g., Cortland, Jonathan, Grushovka Moskovskaya) set fruit buds on the tips of long shoots from the previous year. For them:

• Avoid severe heading back of annual shoots! Otherwise, you will remove all the fruit buds.
• Use thinning, removing only old, diseased, or overcrowding branches.
• In such varieties, fruiting often shifts to the periphery, so it is especially important to maintain good illumination of the inner zones.

How to determine your variety's fruiting habit: observe the tree during flowering and early summer. If most flowers and fruitlets are on short (1–3 cm) twigs — it's spur-type. If on long (20–40 cm) shoots from the previous year — it's mixed or tip-bearing. Consult variety descriptions found in nursery catalogues or reference books.

4.6. Practical Principles and Step-by-Step Instructions

Five principles of maintenance pruning:

1. Start with the 'three D's': remove all Dead, Damaged, and Diseased branches. This is the sanitary basis of any pruning (Phillips, 2005).

2. Thin rather than head back. First, remove entire branches, especially in the upper and outer parts of the crown, to let light into the inner fruit structures.

3. Maintain the crown shape. The tree should resemble a cone or Christmas tree — wider at the bottom and narrower at the top. Upper branches should not shade lower ones (Phillips, 2005; Westwood, 1993).

4. Remove branches with a diameter greater than 1/2 the diameter of the trunk at their point of attachment. Such branches are too strong and will dominate, disrupting subordination.

5. Do not overdo it. Many gardeners prune too much. Remember: moderate pruning stimulates fruiting, severe pruning stimulates vegetative growth (Westwood, 1993). If in doubt, it is better to leave an extra branch than to remove a needed one.

Typical sequence of actions (for a standard central leader crown):

1. Assess the tree. Look at it from different sides. Mentally or with chalk, mark branches to be removed: dead, diseased, growing inward, vertical watersprouts, too long.

2. Remove the 'three D's'. This is the priority.

3. Thin the upper part of the crown. Remove the tallest, strongest branches that shade the lower ones. If the tree is too tall, cut back the leader (or several top branches), cutting to a lateral branch to limit height.

4. Thin the centre of the crown. Remove inward-growing branches and vertical watersprouts that crowd the middle. Leave 2–3 young vertical shoots to 'draw off' vigour (otherwise new watersprouts will appear in their place).

5. Inspect the scaffold branches. Remove overly long, drooping, or crossing side branches. Leave at least 40–50 cm between side branches on each scaffold.

6. Check illumination. Ideally, sunlight should penetrate all parts of the crown. If any area appears too dark, remove a few branches shading it.

7. Evaluate the result. After pruning, there should be enough space in the crown for 'a bird to fly through' — an old gardening guideline for good thinning (Phillips, 2005).

When to prune? Maintenance pruning is most often done in the late winter or early spring (before sap flow begins). However, for vigorous varieties prone to excessive growth, summer pruning (late July to early August) can be very useful — it curbs growth and improves fruit colour (Ferree & Schupp, 2003; Phillips, 2005). We will discuss timing in detail in a separate chapter.

Brief Chapter Summary:

• Maintenance pruning is annual care for a bearing tree.
• Thinning is the main technique: remove entire branches to improve light and reduce crowding.
• Heading back should be used selectively, mainly for rejuvenation or directing growth.
• Thin fruitlets manually for large apples and annual fruiting.
• Consider the fruiting habit of your variety: spur types need more thinning; tip-bearers require careful handling of annual shoots.
• The main principle: less is more, but be consistent. Overly severe pruning stimulates growth at the expense of fruiting.

In the next chapter, we will discuss how to rejuvenate old and neglected trees — when regular maintenance pruning is no longer sufficient.

5.1. When Rejuvenation Pruning is Needed

Rejuvenation pruning is required in two cases:

1. Natural tree aging. When annual shoot growth at the tips of scaffold branches becomes less than 20–25 cm, and fruits become smaller and lose quality (Potapov et al., 2000; Westwood, 1993). This signals that the tree is losing its ability to grow actively and needs stimulation.

2. A neglected tree that has not been pruned for a long time. If the apple tree has not been pruned for several years, the crown becomes very dense, fruiting shifts to the periphery, and 'bare' zones with no fruit structures form inside (Phillips, 2005; Tarasov et al., 1981).

When rejuvenation is NOT advisable:

• If the tree is severely affected by disease (especially trunk rot) or has hollows — it is better to remove it and plant a new one (Phillips, 2005).
• If the tree is over 30–40 years old and its life resource is almost exhausted — rejuvenation may not yield an economically justifiable result.
• For low-vigour trees on dwarf rootstocks, rejuvenation is used less frequently as their lifespan is shorter (10–20 years) and replacing the tree with a new one is simpler (Westwood, 1993).

5.2. Basic Principles of Rejuvenation Pruning

Rejuvenation is always severe heading back of branches to perennial wood (cutting back to 3–5-year-old or sometimes 6–8-year-old wood). It induces vigorous growth of new shoots (watersprouts) from dormant buds at the base of the cut (Krivko, 2014; Westwood, 1993).

The main rule: rejuvenation should be done gradually, over 2–3 years. Do not attempt to do everything in one season — this will weaken the tree too much, cause masses of unwanted watersprouts, and may lead to its death (Phillips, 2005; Ferree & Schupp, 2003).

Why this works? When we cut back an old, low-productivity branch to 3–5-year-old wood, we remove aged, depleted tissues and awaken dormant buds at the base of the branch. These buds produce strong young shoots that, over 2–3 years, form a new, productive crown (Westwood, 1993; Potapov et al., 2000). Scientists call this the 'functional equilibrium' effect: pruning restores the balance between the above-ground and root systems, stimulating growth (Ferree & Schupp, 2003).

Where to make cuts when rejuvenating?

• Cuts should be made to a strong lateral branch, preferably one directed outward and upward (Westwood, 1993; Tarasov et al., 1981). This stimulates the growth of a new shoot in the desired direction and prevents the formation of 'stubs' that can rot.
• For large branches with a diameter over 5–7 cm, the cut is made in several stages: first saw from underneath (to prevent the branch from tearing the bark), then finish sawing from the top, and finally smooth the wound (Phillips, 2005). This is an important technique for tree safety and health.

5.3. Step-by-Step Strategy for Rejuvenating an Old Tree

When rejuvenating a neglected or old tree, follow this plan (Phillips, 2005; Westwood, 1993; Krivko, 2014):

5.4. Specifics for Different Tree Types

For vigorous trees on seedling rootstocks (height 5–8 m or more):

• Rejuvenation should primarily aim at reducing height. Remove the upper part of the central leader and the upper scaffold branches, cutting back to lateral branches. This lets light into the lower branches and simplifies care.
• Severe heading back to 6–8-year-old wood gives good results but requires patience — recovery may take 3–4 years (Westwood, 1993).

For trees on dwarf and semi-dwarf rootstocks (height 2.5–4 m):

• Rejuvenation should be less radical, as these trees have shorter lives and recover faster.
• Shortening branches back to 2–3-year-old wood and removing old fruit clusters is usually sufficient.
• If a tree is severely neglected, it is sometimes easier to replace it with a new one (Westwood, 1993).

For spur-type varieties (Antonovka, Golden Delicious, etc.):

• Rejuvenation is particularly effective, as these varieties have many dormant buds and respond well to severe heading back.
• Remove old, overgrown fruit clusters (fruiting 'knobs' older than 5–6 years) — they produce small fruits and shade younger structures (Phillips, 2005).

For tip-bearing varieties:

• Rejuvenation should be less intensive in areas of annual shoots to avoid removing all fruit buds.
• Shorten mainly older (3–5-year-old) branches, not fresh shoots.

5.5. Restoring Neglected Trees (Special Case)

If a tree has not been pruned for 5–10 years or more, it may have a crown entirely composed of old, long, bare branches. Restoring such trees requires a special approach:

1. Do not rush. Spread the rejuvenation over 3–4 years. In the first year, remove only dead and diseased branches and lightly thin the crown.

2. Stimulate watersprout growth. Severe heading back of a few large branches will induce the growth of strong watersprouts — these are the future branches. Watersprouts may also appear on the trunk and at the base of branches — leave the most promising ones and remove the rest.

3. Use 'Dutch' (or 'staggered') pruning. If a branch is very long and bare, do not remove it entirely; instead, leave a 'stub' 30–50 cm long with a few dormant buds. New shoots will grow from these buds and become the basis for a new crown within 1–2 years (Phillips, 2005).

4. Be prepared for intensive watersprout growth. This is a normal reaction. Thin them out regularly, leaving 5–7 of the strongest on each large branch, and remove or shorten the rest to prevent overcrowding.

5.6. What to Do with Watersprouts?

Watersprouts are strong vertical shoots that appear in response to severe pruning (especially on old trees). They are often considered 'weeds', but with the right approach, they are the basis for rejuvenation.

How to use watersprouts:

• Leave 3–5 of the strongest and best-positioned watersprouts on each large branch — they will become new semi-scaffold and scaffold branches (Westwood, 1993).
• Bend or spread them in the desired direction while they are flexible (in the first year) (Phillips, 2005).
• Remove the other watersprouts (preferably in early summer while they are young and soft) or severely shorten them so they do not shade the crown (Ferree & Schupp, 2003).

5.7. Important Cautions

1. Do not rejuvenate weak or diseased trees. Rejuvenation is stressful. If the tree is weakened, it may die. First, strengthen it: provide water, fertiliser, disease control, and wait 1–2 years before starting rejuvenation (Phillips, 2005; Westwood, 1993).

2. Large wounds need care. Cuts on branches larger than 3–5 cm in diameter should be smoothed with a sharp knife and, if desired, treated with tree sealant (although modern research suggests that sealants do not speed up healing but may protect against infection) (Phillips, 2005).

3. Do not remove more than 30% of the crown in one year. This is a widely accepted rule that prevents shock and excessive watersprout growth (Phillips, 2005).

4. Rejuvenation is not a one-time action. After severe pruning, you need to regularly monitor growth and remove excess shoots in time; otherwise, the tree will quickly become dense again.

Brief Chapter Summary:

• Rejuvenation pruning is needed when annual growth drops below 20 cm or when the tree has not been pruned for a long time.
• The main technique is severe heading back of old branches to 3–5-year-old wood, cutting to outward shoots.
• Carry out rejuvenation gradually, over 2–3 years, removing no more than 30% of the crown per year.
• Watersprouts that appear after severe pruning are material for the new crown. Keep the best ones and remove the rest.
• Rejuvenation is effective only for healthy trees with a living trunk and roots. Diseased or hollow trees are better replaced.
• After rejuvenation, transition to maintenance pruning to keep the new crown productive.

In the next chapter, we will discuss pruning timing — when best to prune the apple tree during the year and why it matters.

6.1. Winter (Dormant) Pruning

When: During the dormant period, after leaf fall and before the start of sap flow (bud swelling). Specific dates depend on the region, but typically this is December – March (in regions with mild winters) or February – April (in regions with harsh winters) (Westwood, 1993; Phillips, 2005).

For what purposes:

• Shaping young trees.
• Main maintenance and rejuvenation pruning of bearing trees.
• Major corrective work (height reduction, removal of large branches).

How it works: In winter, the tree is in a state of deep dormancy. Sap is not flowing, and buds are not growing. Pruning at this time:

• Is least traumatic for the tree, as wounds do not 'bleed' and heal faster when spring sap flow begins (Ferree & Schupp, 2003).
• Stimulates vegetative growth in spring: the removal of terminal buds awakens dormant buds below the cut, producing strong shoots (Westwood, 1993).
• Allows a clear view of the crown structure (without leaves), making it easier to make decisions.

Important nuances:

• In regions with very cold winters (below –20…–25 °C), it is not recommended to prune during the coldest periods. The wood becomes brittle, wounds heal poorly, and the tissues around the cut lose frost hardiness (Ferree & Schupp, 2003; Westwood, 1993). It is better to wait for a thaw or postpone pruning until late winter – early spring.
• In mild winter zones (e.g., southern Russia, the Mediterranean), winter pruning can be carried out almost throughout the winter (Potapov et al., 2000).

Timing within winter:

• Early winter pruning (immediately after leaf fall) is least preferable, as the tree has not yet fully entered dormancy, and wounds may take a long time to heal. It may also provoke shoot growth during prolonged thaws.
• Mid-winter pruning (the coldest months) is the most convenient period for most gardeners, but in harsh regions, it is only done during thaws.
• Late winter pruning (late February – March, before sap flow) is optimal for many regions. It is less risky regarding frost damage, and the stimulating effect is immediate as vegetation begins (Ferree & Schupp, 2003; Phillips, 2005).

Recommendation: For most hobby gardens in regions with temperate and cold climates, the best time for winter pruning is late February – March, when the risk of severe frost is minimal, but buds have not yet begun to swell.

6.2. Spring Pruning (Late Winter, 'Dormant Bud')

When: The period when buds have swollen but have not yet opened (usually April – early May, depending on the region). This timing is often referred to as 'on swelling buds' or 'on dormant buds' (Westwood, 1993; Tarasov et al., 1981).

For what purposes:

• Often used as an alternative to late winter pruning in regions with harsh winters, where winter pruning is risky.
• For varieties prone to excessive growth, spring pruning (with delay) slightly curbs vegetation (Ferree & Schupp, 2003).
• For apple trees with poor branching ('blind' buds) — spring pruning can stimulate the awakening of more buds than winter pruning (Westwood, 1993).

How it works: If pruning is delayed until buds have started to grow, it removes part of the already awakened tissues. This weakens shoot growth in the current season compared to winter pruning but still stimulates branching (Ferree & Schupp, 2003).

Advantages and disadvantages:

• Pro: reduces the risk of frost damage to wounds (as frosts are unlikely), allows better assessment of bud condition (see which are frost-damaged) (Westwood, 1993).
• Con: shorter working window (before buds open), work is complicated by the presence of swollen buds that can be damaged.

Recommendation: In regions with cold, snowless winters, postpone the main pruning to spring, before bud break.

6.3. Summer Pruning ('Green' Pruning)

When: During the active growing season, typically from late May to August (depending on region and goals). It can be divided into early summer (late May – June) and late summer (late July – August) (Ferree & Schupp, 2003; Phillips, 2005).

For what purposes:

• Removal of watersprouts (especially in the upper part of the crown) and vertical shoots to improve illumination of ripening fruits (Phillips, 2005; Westwood, 1993).
• Controlling excessive vegetative growth in vigorous trees (summer pruning weakens the tree more than winter pruning) (Ferree & Schupp, 2003).
• Stimulating fruit bud formation (especially if done in late June – early July, after the main shoot growth has finished) (Ferree & Schupp, 2003; Phillips, 2005).
• Improving fruit colour (removing leaves shading the apples) (Westwood, 1993).

How it works: Summer pruning removes actively photosynthesising leaves, reducing the carbohydrate supply to the tree. This:

• Curbs shoot growth in the current and following season.
• Redirects resources to the fruits, improving their size and quality.
• Allows a clear view of which shoots are shading the fruit and removes them (Ferree & Schupp, 2003).

Important nuances:

• Early summer pruning (before mid-June) stimulates the emergence of new shoots (regrowth) in the same season. This can be useful for shaping young trees but is undesirable for bearing trees as it impairs fruit nutrition (Ferree & Schupp, 2003).
• Late summer pruning (after mid-July, when shoot growth has ceased) does not cause regrowth — this is precisely what is used to improve fruit illumination without stimulating new growth (Ferree & Schupp, 2003; Phillips, 2005).
• Summer pruning can increase the calcium content in fruits and reduce the risk of bitter pit, as it reduces competition between shoots and fruits for calcium (Ferree & Schupp, 2003; Westwood, 1993).

Recommendation: To improve fruit colour and size, perform light summer pruning (removal of watersprouts and vertical shoots) in late July – early August. This is safe and effective.

6.4. Autumn Pruning

When: In autumn, after harvest, but before the onset of stable cold weather (typically September – October, depending on region) (Potapov et al., 2000; Phillips, 2005).

For what purposes:

• Mainly sanitary — removal of dead, broken, diseased branches.
• In autumn, you can also remove watersprouts and shoots that have not matured and may freeze in winter.
• In regions with mild winters, autumn pruning can replace winter pruning (Westwood, 1993; Potapov et al., 2000).

Limitations:

• In regions with cold winters, autumn pruning is not recommended, as wounds do not have time to heal before frost, which can cause freezing of tissues around the cuts (Westwood, 1993; Ferree & Schupp, 2003). The exception is the removal of clearly dead and diseased branches (sanitary pruning).
• Autumn pruning can provoke shoot growth during a warm autumn, which will reduce winter hardiness (Phillips, 2005).

Recommendation: In most regions with temperate and cold climates, avoid autumn pruning where possible (except for sanitary pruning). Postpone the main pruning to late winter – spring.

6.5. Seasonal Gardener's Calendar (General Scheme)

For temperate climates (snowy winter, warm summer):

• Late February – March: main winter (dormant) pruning (training, thinning, rejuvenation) — the most important period.
• April – early May: corrective pruning if needed (if winter pruning was not completed or there was frost damage).
• Late May – June: removal of young watersprouts (on young trees) or pinching shoots to stimulate branching.
• Late July – August: summer pruning (removal of watersprouts to illuminate fruit, curbing growth of vigorous trees).
• September – October: only sanitary pruning (removal of dead, diseased, broken branches). Avoid major cuts.
• November – January: no pruning (except for sanitary pruning during thaws).

For warm climates (south, Mediterranean):

• November – December: start of winter pruning (after leaf fall).
• January – February: main winter pruning.
• March: completion of pruning before sap flow.
• June – July: summer pruning (removal of watersprouts, thinning).
• September – October: autumn pruning is permissible but less preferable.

For regions with very cold and snowless winters (continental climate, Siberia, northern regions):

• Main pruning — in spring (April – early May), after the threat of severe frost has passed, but before bud break.
• Winter pruning (during thaws) — only for the most winter-hardy varieties.
• Summer pruning — as usual (late July – August).

6.6. Practical Recommendations for Timing

Focus on the tree's development stage, not the calendar. For example, 'spring' in different regions can mean March or May. Key indicators:

• Early spring — when the temperature is consistently above –5 °C, but buds have not yet started to grow.
• Late spring — when buds have swollen but have not yet opened.
• Mid-summer — after shoot growth has finished (usually late June – July).
• Late summer – early autumn — when fruits begin to colour (August – early September).

What if you missed the optimal period?

• If you are late with winter pruning and buds have already started to open — postpone pruning until summer (remove only watersprouts) or the following winter. Spring pruning on opened buds severely weakens the tree (Westwood, 1993).
• If you missed summer pruning — it is not critical. Do it the following spring or summer.

Combine pruning with other tasks:

• Winter and spring pruning is the best time for fertilising and disease control (copper-based products).
• Summer pruning is often combined with fruit thinning (removal of excess fruitlets).

Brief Chapter Summary:

• Winter pruning (late winter – early spring) — the main one for most gardens: stimulates growth, convenient for major work.
• Spring (late winter) pruning — an alternative in cold regions, but requires precision to avoid damaging swollen buds.
• Summer pruning (late July – August) — curbs growth, improves fruit illumination, does not cause new shoots.
• Autumn pruning — only sanitary; in cold regions, it is undesirable.
• The choice of timing depends on regional climate and pruning objectives.
• If in doubt, late winter (late February – March) is the most universal and safe period for most apple trees.

In the next, final chapter, we will discuss common pruning mistakes and how to avoid them.

7.1. Excessive (Overly Severe) Pruning

Mistake: Removing more than 30–40% of the crown in one season, especially on a bearing tree. Often arises from a desire to 'rejuvenate' the tree all at once or from a fear that the tree is too dense.

Why it is harmful:

• The tree responds to severe pruning by producing a huge number of watersprouts — vigorous vertical shoots. They shade the crown, consume nutrients, and hinder fruiting (Ferree & Schupp, 2003; Phillips, 2005).
• Severe pruning delays fruiting by 2–3 years, as all resources are directed to restoring the crown rather than setting fruit buds (Westwood, 1993).
• The tree weakens and becomes more vulnerable to diseases and frost (Phillips, 2005).
• Increases the risk of biennial bearing: in the year of severe pruning, there will be almost no yield, and the next year may be excessive, again leading to exhaustion (Westwood, 1993).

How to avoid:

• Prune gradually, over 2–3 years, removing no more than 25–30% of the crown volume in one season (Phillips, 2005).
• On a bearing tree, prefer thinning (removal of entire branches) over mass heading back. Thinning stimulates less watersprout formation (Ferree & Schupp, 2003).
• If the tree is severely neglected, spread the rejuvenation over 3–4 years (see Chapter 5).

7.2. Incorrect Cut: Stub or Too Deep

Mistake: Leaving stubs (part of the branch above the cut point) or, conversely, cutting too deeply, damaging the bark of the trunk or parent branch.

Why it is harmful:

• A stub does not heal, eventually dies, and becomes an entry point for rot and diseases (Phillips, 2005; Shigo, 1990, cited in Phillips, 2005). Rot can spread inside the branch and even into the trunk.
• A cut that is too deep (cutting into the trunk bark) damages the protective tissues (the collar) and slows healing, also creating a risk of infection (Phillips, 2005; Westwood, 1993).

How to do it correctly:

• When removing a branch, make the cut flush with the branch collar (the swelling at the base of the branch), leaving no stub and not cutting into the trunk bark (Tarasov et al., 1981; Phillips, 2005). This area contains specialised tissues that quickly seal the wound.
• For a cut to a bud: cut at a 45° angle about 5 mm above the bud, with the top edge of the cut level with the tip of the bud and the lower edge just below its base (Tarasov et al., 1981; Westwood, 1993). Do not leave a long stub above the bud — it will dry out and may become a source of infection.
• For large branches (over 5 cm in diameter), make an undercut before the main cut to prevent the branch from tearing the bark (Phillips, 2005; Westwood, 1993). Then finish the cut from the top.

7.3. Removing Fruit Branches (Buds) by Mistake

Mistake: The gardener does not distinguish between fruit and vegetative buds and cuts off branches that would have produced the current year's crop. This is especially common with tip-bearing varieties (see Chapter 4), where fruit buds are located on the tips of long shoots.

Why it is harmful:

• You lose the current year's harvest.
• If you remove annual shoots from tip-bearers, you can completely 'cut out' the future harvest, as fruit buds are set precisely on the previous year's shoots (Westwood, 1993).

How to avoid:

• Learn to distinguish buds. Fruit (flower) buds are rounded, larger, and plump. Vegetative (growth) buds are slender and pointed (Phillips, 2005; Potapov et al., 2000).
• Know the fruiting habit of your variety. If unsure, check nursery catalogues or observe the tree over a season. For tip-bearers, be especially careful with heading back annual shoots.
• Use thinning instead of heading back where possible — this way you are less likely to remove fruit buds (Ferree & Schupp, 2003).

7.4. Leaving 'Competitors' and Vertical Shoots

Mistake: Ignoring strong vertical shoots growing level with the central leader or inside the crown, as well as retaining too many watersprouts.

Why it is harmful:

• Competitors intercept nutrients and shade the leader, disrupting subordination (Westwood, 1993). The crown becomes irregular, with multiple dominant tops, weakening the tree.
• Watersprouts are vigorous vegetative shoots that hardly bear fruit but heavily shade the crown and steal resources from fruit branches (Phillips, 2005).

How to avoid:

• Regularly (especially in the early years) remove or severely shorten shoots growing vertically near the leader or inside the crown (Tarasov et al., 1981; Phillips, 2005).
• When forming a young tree, choose only one strong central leader and remove any other branches attempting to overtake it.
• Watersprouts can be turned into fruit branches if bent or pruned (see Chapter 5), but if there are too many, remove the excess.

7.5. Ignoring or Incorrectly Pruning Watersprouts

Mistake: Completely removing all watersprouts or, conversely, ignoring them and allowing them to become overcrowding shoots.

Why it is harmful:

• Completely removing all watersprouts provokes the growth of new ones — the tree attempts to restore lost growth points (Phillips, 2005).
• Ignoring watersprouts leads to severe overcrowding, worsening illumination and reducing fruit quality (Westwood, 1993).

How to avoid:

• Leave 2–3 of the strongest and best-positioned watersprouts on the tree (or on a large branch). They will 'draw off' vigour and serve as a reserve for rejuvenation (Phillips, 2005). Remove the rest.
• The best time to remove watersprouts is summer (late July – August), when they have grown but have not yet become woody (Ferree & Schupp, 2003). They can simply be snapped out or cut off at the base.

7.6. Incorrect Selection of Scaffold Branches (Narrow Angles, Overcrowding)

Mistake: When forming a young tree, retaining branches with very narrow angles of attachment (less than 30–40°) or several branches arising from the same point on the trunk (a whorl).

Why it is harmful:

• A narrow angle creates a weak point: bark is pinched in the crotch, a strong ring of tissue does not form, and the branch easily breaks under the weight of fruit or snow (Phillips, 2005; Westwood, 1993).
• Crowded branches (a whorl) compete with each other, shade each other, and form weak crotches that may eventually split (Westwood, 1993).

How to avoid:

• When forming, retain branches with angles of attachment of at least 45–60° (optimally 50–60°). If a branch is growing at a narrow angle but is needed, bend it with a spreader (Phillips, 2005).
• Do not allow more than 2 branches to arise from the same point on the trunk. Space branches at least 30–40 cm apart vertically along the trunk (Tarasov et al., 1981; Westwood, 1993).

7.7. Ignoring Timing: Pruning in Frost or Wet Weather

Mistake: Pruning during severe frosts (below –10…–15 °C) or in wet, rainy weather.

Why it is harmful:

• In frost, wood becomes brittle, cuts are jagged and heal poorly (Ferree & Schupp, 2003; Westwood, 1993). Tissues around the cut lose frost hardiness, which can lead to extensive winter damage.
• In wet weather, the risk of wound infection by fungal diseases (especially cytosporosis and canker) increases (Westwood, 1993).

How to avoid:

• Prune when the temperature is not below –5…–7 °C (Phillips, 2005). Do this during thaws or on dry, clear days.
• In regions with harsh winters, postpone the main pruning to spring (April – early May) (Westwood, 1993).
• Avoid pruning during prolonged rains or immediately after them.

7.8. Lack of Sanitary Pruning

Mistake: The gardener focuses only on shaping or rejuvenation but does not remove dead, diseased, or broken branches.

Why it is harmful:

• Dead and diseased branches are sources of infection that can spread to healthy parts of the tree (Phillips, 2005; Westwood, 1993).
• They consume resources (the tree tries to support them even though they are useless) and shade fruit branches.
• Broken branches can become entry points for rot and pests.

How to avoid:

• Always start pruning with the 'three D's' — removing Dead, Damaged, and Diseased branches (Phillips, 2005). This should be a rule.
• Perform sanitary pruning at any time of year (it is permissible even in autumn, unlike formative pruning).

7.9. Ignoring Variety-Specific Characteristics

Mistake: Applying the same pruning strategy to all varieties, regardless of their fruiting habit and vigour.

Why it is harmful:

• Tip-bearing varieties (Cortland, Jonathan, Grushovka) lose yield when severely headed back because their fruit buds are located on the shoot tips (Westwood, 1993; Phillips, 2005).
• Spur-type varieties (Antonovka, Golden Delicious) respond poorly to severe heading back, which stimulates excessive shoot growth and reduces the number of spurs (Westwood, 1993).
• Vigorous varieties require more careful pruning to avoid provoking even stronger growth (Phillips, 2005).

How to avoid:

• Study the characteristics of your varieties. Use reference books, nursery catalogues, or online resources.
• For tip-bearing varieties, minimise heading back of annual shoots, focusing on thinning.
• For spur-type varieties, regularly thin the crown and remove old, overgrown fruit clusters, but avoid severe heading back.

7.10. Ignoring Follow-up Care

Mistake: After pruning, the gardener does not care for the healing wounds or monitor the tree's response.

Why it is harmful:

• Large wounds (over 3–5 cm in diameter) heal slowly and may become infected.
• If many watersprouts appear after severe pruning, they need to be removed or shaped in time; otherwise, they will thicken the crown (Westwood, 1993).

How to avoid:

• Smooth large cuts with a sharp knife (remove roughness) and, if desired, treat with tree sealant (though modern research suggests sealants do not speed healing but may protect against infection) (Phillips, 2005).
• Regularly inspect the tree after pruning. If many watersprouts appear, remove or shorten them during the summer (Ferree & Schupp, 2003).
• In the first year after severe pruning, provide the tree with good watering and fertilisation for recovery.

Brief Chapter Summary:

The main idea: Pruning is not a one-time operation but a system of care requiring knowledge, attention, and patience. Mistakes are inevitable, but most can be prevented by approaching the task thoughtfully and without rushing.