Buckwheat

Last updated: June 24, 2025

Buckwheat — a grain agricultural groats crop.

Economic importance

From buckwheat grain, buckwheat groats are obtained, which are distinguished by high taste and nutritional qualities. The protein composition of buckwheat corresponds in quality to the protein composition of leguminous crops, includes essential amino acids lysine — 7.9% and arginine — 12.7%.

Chemical composition of unhulled fruits: moisture — 12.8%, proteins — 10-16%, fats — 1.8-2.7%, nitrogen-free extractives — 60-62%, fiber — 13.3%, ash substances — 2.1%.

Buckwheat groats contain organic acids (citric, malic, oxalic), minerals (phosphorus, calcium, iron, copper), vitamins B₁ (thiamine), P (rutin) and B₂. Vitamin content is 1.5 times higher than in millet. Therefore buckwheat groats are considered one of the best dietary products.

Buckwheat flour is not suitable for bread baking, but is used for pancakes, flatbreads, etc., as well as in the confectionery industry. Waste after hulling grain, straw and chaff go to livestock feed, bedding, or organic fertilizer. 1 kg of buckwheat straw contains 23 g digestible protein and equals 0.3 feed units, however excess in animal diets is undesirable, as it can lead to diseases. Green mass obtained in stubble sowings is suitable for silage.

Ash of straw and husks contains up to 35-40% potassium oxide, therefore can be used as potassium fertilizer (potash).

Buckwheat is a honey plant; honey collection from 1 ha of crops amounts to up to 100 kg.

From leaves and flowers of buckwheat, the medicinal preparation rutin is obtained, used in the treatment of sclerosis, hypertension, and also for removing radioactive nuclides from the body. Rutin is also present in yadritsa (whole groats).

It serves as a good predecessor for many agricultural crops, including due to rapid growth and good suppression of weeds.

Thanks to its short growing season and the possibility of late sowing, buckwheat can be used as a stubble, cover, and insurance crop. Stubble sowings can be plowed in for green fertilizer.

History of the crop

Cultivated buckwheat originates from high-mountain humid regions of the eastern part of the Asian continent (India, China, Himalayas), and formed as a crop about 2.5 thousand years ago. Its origin determines its specific morphological properties and requirements for growing conditions.

Probably cultivated buckwheat originated from wild Tatar buckwheat (Fagopyrum tataricum). It reached the territory of the south of modern Russia in the 1st century AD, but began to be cultivated only in the 13th-15th centuries. At the same time it spread to European states.

Cultivation areas and yield

Russia occupies one of the first places in the world in buckwheat production. In the USSR, buckwheat sown areas were in 1971-1975 1.75 million ha, in 1976-1980 — 1.58 million ha. In Russia in the late 1990s — 1.0-1.5 million ha or 2.2% of the grain area. Gross harvest — 0.5 million t with yield 0.4-0.6 t/ha.

Sown areas in the world were approximately 3.9 million ha (0.6% of the sown area of grain crops), of which in Europe — 2.4 million ha, China — 0.6 million ha. Also small areas exist in Canada, USA, Japan, India. In high-mountain regions of the Himalayas at altitudes up to 4.5 thousand m, Tatar buckwheat is cultivated.

Gross grain harvest in the world is 4 million t or 0.2% of grain production. Average yield — 1.0 t/ha.

Main buckwheat sowings in Russia are located in the central regions of the Non-Chernozem and Chernozem zones, the Volga region, in Tatarstan, Bashkiria and Udmurtia, in the Urals, Siberia and the Far East. In the south and southeast of the country this crop is not widespread, as it suffers from droughts and heat. Among the countries of the former USSR, buckwheat is cultivated in Belarus, the forest-steppe and western parts of Ukraine, and Kazakhstan.

Buckwheat yield for 1976-1980 averaged 5.7 c/ha; in leading farms with high agricultural technology and taking into account the biological features of the crop — up to 20-25 c/ha of grain. For example, in 1975 in Bugulminsky district of Tatarstan (state farm "Vostochny") yield reached 32.2 c/ha, in 1982 in Aznakayevsky district of Tatarstan (collective farm "Avangard") — 22.6 c/ha, Bershadsky district of Vinnitsa region (collective farm named after the XXII Congress of the CPSU, Ukraine) — 21.3 c/ha, in Izbuleksky district of Bashkiria (state farm "Novomikhaylovsky") — 21 c/ha, in Skopinsky district of Ryazan region (collective farm "Svetly Put") — 20 c/ha.

In increasing the yield and efficiency of buckwheat cultivation, concentration of sowings, qualification of specialists and specialization of farms are important.

Among grain crops, buckwheat is distinguished by unstable and low yield. However, under market economy conditions it becomes a relatively profitable crop.

Botanical description

In agriculture, two species of the genus Buckwheat (Fagopyrum) are important:

cultivated buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moenh.) — annual herbaceous plant, subdivided:
common (ssp. vulgare Stol.) — most widespread in cultivation;
many-leaved (ssp. multifolium Stol.) — tall, well-leafed, grown in the Far East.
Tatar buckwheat (Fagopyrum tataricum (L.) Garth.) — wild annual plant, often classified as weeds.

Greatest interest and distribution has cultivated buckwheat; other species are of interest more for breeding.

In 1995 Japanese researcher O. Ohnishi proposed a new classification of buckwheat, which included 16 species.

Root system

Buckwheat root system is taproot, consists of the embryonic root and secondary roots. It is capable of penetrating to a depth of 60-100 cm. The main mass lies at a depth up to 30 cm. Roots are poorly developed: according to A. P. Modestov, their length is 2 times less than in plants of oats.

Roots are capable of excreting formic, acetic, citric, oxalic acids, which determines buckwheat's ability to assimilate sparingly soluble nutrients. Long root hairs also contribute to the absorbing ability of roots.

By the beginning of flowering, 50% of the root system acquires a brown color, by full flowering — 75%, which is associated with early aging. Shallow seed placement and drying of the top soil layer lead to poor development of adventitious roots, which in turn reduces buckwheat productivity.

Stem

Stem is hollow, ribbed and branching, forms up to 10-12 branches, height from 50 to 120 cm, sometimes up to 2.5 m, turns red when ripening.

Buckwheat stem is divided into three parts:

lower, or hypocotyl, from which stem roots form;
middle, or branching zone, from which first-order branches depart, and with sparse sowing also second, third and higher order branches depart. In dense sowings branching does not occur, flower stalks are located only at the top of the stem;
upper, or fruiting zone, on which generative organs form.

Leaves

Leaves are petiolate, heart-shaped-triangular; toward the top of the stem and branches they become sessile, arrow-shaped.

Buckwheat plants develop a large leaf surface, however leaf supply per flower, amounting to 0.56-0.62 cm², is 1.5-2 times lower than in spring wheat. With an increase in feeding area from 15×5 cm to 30×15 cm, leaf supply per flower increased from 0.5 to 0.96 cm², while plant productivity — from 1.3 to 11.4 g (G. M. Solovyov). Therefore buckwheat yield is determined by leaf supply of flowers and illumination, which is determined by feeding area.

Inflorescence

Buckwheat flowers are bisexual, collected in inflorescences (axillary racemes), have a strong smell attracting insects, white, pink or red color, of various structure. Number of flowers on one well-developed plant is from 500 to 1500. Flowers are dimorphic, heterostylous (different-styled), that is, in some plants flowers are short-styled with long stamens, while in others the pistil is about 2 times longer than the stamens. The ratio of plants with long-styled and short-styled flowers in sowings is approximately equal. The phenomenon is called dimorphism.

Fruit

Buckwheat fruit is a triquetrous membranous nutlet of gray, brown or black color with pericarp fused to the seed. Mass of 1000 seeds varies from 18 to 32 g, hull content 15-30%. Embryo mass is 10% of seed mass. Seed consists of two cotyledons, which are brought to the soil surface, radicle and endosperm.

Biological features

Temperature requirements

Seeds begin to germinate at temperature 7-8 °C. Uniform seedlings appear at 15 °C after 7-8 days, at 12 °C — after 10 days. Temperature boundaries of growth and development are narrow.

Spring frosts down to -1.5 °C can damage seedlings; at -2 °C they die. At temperature less than 12-13 °C buckwheat growth is strongly slowed. Temperatures above 25 °C also act depressingly, especially in the flowering phase. At this time plants can suffer from dry and from cold rainy weather, while nectaries become weakly active, nectar dries.

Optimal for buckwheat are air temperatures close to 20 °C (18-25 °C). During flowering, warm weather with variable cloudiness, temperature 20-25 °C, relative humidity not less than 60% and slight wind are favorable. Such weather promotes nectar secretion by flowers.

Moisture requirements

Buckwheat belongs to moisture-loving plants. Water consumption is 2-3 times higher than in millet. Transpiration coefficient is 480-600. Critical period — from flowering to fruit filling.

Seed germination begins upon absorption of 40-50% water of seed mass. Water consumption in the period from emergence to flowering is 11%, from flowering to ripening — 89%.

Buckwheat gives the highest yield in warm, moderately humid years, primarily in the second period of vegetation. In arid conditions yield sharply decreases.

Light requirements

Buckwheat is a short-day plant. Growth and development proceed well under 17-19-hour illumination during the day. Short day and late sowings lead to a reduction of the vegetation period, however plants become short, especially late-ripening forms. Researchers I. A. Pulman, G. G. Akshrunov, K. A. Savitsky established that variable cloudiness is favorable for the formation of a high yield.

Soil requirements

Buckwheat is little sensitive to soil acidity, optimal reaction pH 5-7.5. Experiments of O. K. Kedrov-Zikhman showed that buckwheat yield at pH 4.78 was 32.5 g/vessel, at pH 5.3 — 53.5 g/vessel, at pH 7.15 — 55.7 g/vessel.

It develops well on different soil types, including cultivated peat and sandy, but prefers more fertile: loose fertile chernozems and gray forest soils. Poorly tolerates waterlogged low areas.

Vegetation

Vegetation period 60-100 days.

Phenological phases of vegetation:

germination — occurs 2-4 days after sowing and seed swelling;
emergence — occurs 7-10 days after sowing, the hypocotyl grows and brings cotyledons to the soil surface;
1st pair of true leaves;
branching — occurs 8-10 days after emergence, the second leaf forms, buds are laid in leaf axils, from which branches develop;
budding — begins 8-17 days after emergence, almost simultaneously with branching;
flowering — begins depending on the earliness of the variety on the 18-28th day from emergence in inflorescences of the main stem, after 4-8 days also on side branches, duration 35-45 days;
fruit formation — stretched up to 30 days;
ripening — ripening of the first fruits begins 25-35 days after the beginning of flowering. If dry weather is replaced by rainy, secondary formation of new fruits may be observed.

From emergence to budding, growth of buckwheat plants is slow. From budding to the beginning of browning of seeds, growth is vigorous, accumulation of over 70% of the total dry matter occurs. After that increment slows, but does not stop, continuing until the ripening phase. Simultaneously with intensive growth, early development of flowers and fruits is observed.

The ripening phase corresponds to increased requirements for nutrients and other growth factors. External conditions in this period are decisive for yield formation.

At grain moisture 35-40%, increase in grain mass stops; water content in leaves and stems in this period reaches 50-65%. Fruit ripening begins from the lower tiers of the central and side stems.

Pollination is cross, occurs mainly by insects, partly by wind. Fertilization and setting occur better if pollen of long-stamened flowers lands on long styles, and from short stamens on short styles. This type of pollination is called legitimate, or lawful, or same-type. Conversely, greater efficiency of pollination of long styles by pollen of short stamens, and correspondingly short styles by pollen of long stamens, is called illegitimate, or unlawful pollination.

Studies conducted at MSKhA named after K. A. Timiryazev showed that the share of fruit setting in buckwheat variety Bolshevik on average with self-pollination is 5%, with illegitimate pollination — 9.6%, with legitimate same-type pollination — 43%.

Buckwheat is a cross-pollinating plant. Most pollen is transferred by insects, mainly bees. Usually the number of fertilized ovaries is less than 20%. This value is negatively affected by high or low temperatures, drought, wind, precipitation, fog. In extreme conditions flowering may stop completely. In cases when after drought rainy weather sets in, buckwheat is capable of returning to growth, flowering and formation of a full yield.

An increase in the share of fertilized ovaries is promoted by correct agricultural technology and organization of bee pollination.

Main causes of yield instability include:

overlap in time of vegetative and generative periods;
disruption of the ratio of leaf surface and number of flowers on one plant;
long periods of flowering and fruit formation.

Crop rotation

After row crops, winter crops and leguminous crops, buckwheat yield increases by 15-40% compared to spring grain predecessors. In crop rotations saturated with spring grains, buckwheat is better placed after wheat. Good predecessors also include a layer of perennial grasses; in arid conditions of the Volga region — clean fallow.

In southwestern regions of Russia and Ukraine, buckwheat serves as a good predecessor for winter crops. For example, at Sumy Agricultural Experimental Station, winter rye after occupied buckwheat fallow gave 21.2 c/ha of grain (buckwheat yield in fallow was 14.4 c/ha), after clean fallow — 29.5 c/ha.

In regions with a long warm autumn and sufficient atmospheric precipitation, buckwheat is used for stubble sowings. It is placed after crops that early free the field, for example, after winter rapeseed, barley, rye, early potato. As an insurance crop, buckwheat is used in case of death of winter or early spring crops.

Buckwheat sowings can be placed on plots located not far from forest belts and forests, especially in steppe and forest-steppe zones, as they are well protected from wind, have greater soil and air humidity, and also a greater number of pollinating insects. For example, at Chishminskaya Experimental Station (Bashkiria), from a plot 400 m from the forest belt, yield 13.6 c/ha was collected, at 200 m — 15.7 c/ha, from a plot located directly near the forest belt — 17 c/ha.

Buckwheat serves as a predecessor for grain and leguminous crops.

Fertilization

Due to its weak root system and high demand for nutrients, buckwheat responds well to the application of fertilizers. To form 1 t of grain yield and the corresponding amount of straw, it consumes 44 kg nitrogen, 25 kg P₂O₅ and 75 kg K₂O.

Before flowering, buckwheat plants absorb up to 61% nitrogen, 62% potassium and 40% phosphorus of the total requirement.

From phosphorus fertilizers, as established by D. N. Pryanishnikov, buckwheat is capable of assimilating phosphorus of phosphorite flour, which is applied in the main fertilizer at a rate of 90-100 kg P₂O₅ per 1 ha.

At sowing, granular superphosphate is simultaneously applied at a rate of 10-20 kg/ha P₂O₅. In Udmurtia (state farm "Pravda") the increase in buckwheat yield from row application of phosphorus averaged over two years 3.4 c/ha.

Of potassium fertilizers, potassium sulfate or ash at rate K_40-45 are effective. Increased doses of chlorine-containing potassium fertilizers lead to the appearance of leaf spotting, and in dry years — to a yield decrease.

On chernozems, buckwheat responds well to phosphorus fertilizers. Addition of nitrogen and potassium to phosphorus fertilizers does not significantly affect yield. On gray podzolized soils, the action of nitrogen and potassium fertilizers has a greater positive effect; on the contrary, the role of phosphorus somewhat decreases. The highest yield on these soils, as well as on sod-podzolic soils, was obtained with the application of complete mineral fertilizer.

Table. Effect of fertilizers on buckwheat yield on various soils (Nosovskaya Breeding and Experimental Station).

Experimental variant	Average yield on slightly leached chernozem, c/ha		Average yield on gray podzolized soils, c/ha
Experimental variant	c/ha	%	c/ha	%
Without fertilizers	15.9	100	7.3	100
P₃₀	19.3	121	8.8	120
N₃₀P₃₀	19.3	121	10.6	145
N₃₀K₃₀	17.9	113	10.7	146
P₃₀K₃₀	19.2	121	9.6	133
N₃₀P₃₀K₃₀	19.6	123	11.9	159

In many studies, an increase in nectar secretion by flowers from the application of phosphorus-potassium fertilizers, better visitation by bees and an increase in grain setting of inflorescences were noted.

On sandy loam soils, the highest yields are achieved with combined application of complete mineral and organic fertilizers. Buckwheat is also responsive to the aftereffect of fertilizers.

Buckwheat has an uneven and extended period of nutrient consumption, therefore to increase productivity it is important to effectively distribute fertilizers. According to NII of agriculture (Ukraine, experimental farm "Chabany"), application of N₄₈P₄₅K₄₅ under plowing increased yield from 15.9 to 19.2 c/ha, whereas application of P30K30 under plowing, N₁₅P₁₅K₁₅ in top dressing in the budding phase and N₃₀ in the mass flowering phase — to 21.1 c/ha. The same NII proved the effectiveness of foliar top dressings of buckwheat. Triple spraying with solution P₁₅K₁₀ in the grain formation phase increased yield compared to triple spraying with water from 9.9 to 12.8 c/ha; content of crude protein in grain increased from 14.0 to 15.2%.

Nitrogen fertilizers can also be applied during inter-row cultivation of wide-row sowings at dose N_10-15. When sowing buckwheat after well-fertilized predecessors, top dressing may not be carried out.

To avoid leaf burns during foliar top dressing, it is carried out in the second half of the day after 16-17 h, using solutions with low concentration.

Excess nitrogen in years with sufficient moisture can lead to the formation of powerful above-ground mass and lodging of sowings. So that buckwheat does not "fatten", organic fertilizers are better applied under the preceding crop. Phosphorus-potassium fertilizers are applied before fall plowing, nitrogen — in spring under pre-sowing cultivation at rate N_35-40.

Buckwheat is little sensitive to soil acidity, however soils with increased acidity require liming. According to Novozybkovskaya Experimental Station VNIIUA, buckwheat yield without lime was 8.9 c/ha, with application — 13.4 c/ha.

On light soils, magnesium is applied in the form of dolomite flour.

Micronutrients

Buckwheat responds to micronutrients when corresponding elements are deficient in soil. In experiments of Novozybkovskaya Experimental Station VNIIUA, treatment of buckwheat seeds with boron fertilizers contributed to yield increase by 1.2-7 c/ha. According to experiments of V. I. Ulmanis (Latvia), use of copper, zinc and boron fertilizers increases yield by 13-15%.

Magnesium borate is applied before cultivation, and superphosphate enriched with boron — in rows at sowing.

Soil cultivation

Soil cultivation for buckwheat includes early and deep fall plowing. Preliminary stubble disking with disk harrows is carried out. After row crops on weed-free fields, disking may not be carried out; otherwise treatment with heavy disk harrows to depth 12 cm is done.

In arid regions, snow retention and meltwater retention are carried out in winter.

In spring, early moisture closure is carried out with heavy harrows BZTS-1.0 in two passes with an interval not less than 3 hours; 2-3 cultivations with harrowing, since due to late sowing there is a possibility to carry out additional treatments against weeds and better prepare the soil. Heavy or strongly compacted soils instead of the first cultivation are treated with subsurface tools.

First cultivation is carried out during sowing of early spring grains to depth 10-12 cm, second — after 8-12 days to 6-8 cm, third — on the day of sowing to the depth of seed placement. On light soils only two cultivations are done. Cultivators of type KSP-4G, KShP-8, KShU-12 are used; before sowing — for more uniform loosening by depth — USMK-5.4B. Cultivators are aggregated with tooth or sowing harrows with drag harrows; on light soils — rollers.

In conditions of erosion risk, corresponding anti-erosion soil treatment is carried out.

The last cultivation with harrowing is performed 1-2 days before sowing to depth 5-6 cm.

Sowing

Seed preparation

Buckwheat seeds vary greatly in size and mass due to the extended period of their formation. For this reason, cleaning, sorting and selection of large heavy seeds is a condition for obtaining high yields. For sorting heavy large fractions of seeds, sorting tables are used, for example, PSS-2-5, or immersion in water or 10-15% solution of ammonium nitrate or table salt. After immersion, seeds are washed with water and dried.

The mechanical sorting method is preferable. However, if buckwheat seeds are contaminated with seeds of wild radish and other weeds, it is possible to separate them completely only in salt solution.

According to experiments of Oryol Agricultural Experimental Station, sowing with light small seeds gave buckwheat yield 12.3 c/ha, small heavy — 15.2 c/ha, light large — 16 c/ha, large heavy — 19.1 c/ha.

To increase germination energy and field germination of seeds, solar heating or air-thermal treatment with active ventilation is used.

To combat fungal diseases, for example, gray rot, downy mildew, etc., which can lead to the death of up to 20-30% plants, seeds are treated with 80% TMTD at rate 200 g preparation per 100 kg seeds.

Sowing dates

Weather conditions affect buckwheat yield more strongly than the yield of other field crops. Early sowing can lead to damage of seedlings by spring frosts, and late — to the negative impact of heat and lack of moisture.

Sowing begins when the soil warms at depth 10 cm to 12-15 °C and there is no risk of frost. The choice of sowing dates in all zones of Russia should take into account the need to create favorable conditions in the flowering and fruit formation phases, that is, temperature not more than 25 °C and sufficient moisture. For this, in some cases sowing is carried out in two dates with an interval of 10-15 days.

The more late-ripening the variety, the more yield decreases when sowing is delayed, as it finds itself in unfavorable temperature and moisture conditions in the second half of vegetation, and tolerates them worse with stronger development of above-ground mass. Early-ripening varieties suffer more from low temperatures at the beginning of development; they are sown 10-15 days later than late-ripening ones.

Optimal sowing dates for buckwheat:

Non-Chernozem, Central Chernozem zone, Far East — third decade of May — beginning of June;
south of Chernozem zone, Volga region — second half of May;
south of forest-steppe — first decade of May;
north of steppe — last decade of April.

In the south of Russia, buckwheat is also sown as stubble after harvest of the main crop. Early-ripening varieties are best for this.

Sowing methods

Main methods of sowing buckwheat are wide-row, row and narrow-row (7.5 cm). Wide-row method with row spacing 45 cm is used on weed-infested fields, on plots with high soil fertility, for late-ripening and mid-ripening varieties, and also with moisture deficit.

Table. Effect of sowing methods on buckwheat yield, average over 3 years.

Sowing method	Row spacing, cm	Seeding rate, kg/ha	Yield, c/ha
Ordinary row	15	80	18.4
Wide-row	30	60	20.3
Wide-row	40	50	23.8
Wide-row	45	45	24.7

An experiment conducted in Leninsky district of Moscow region (collective farm "Bolshevik") showed that the highest yield is achieved with row spacing 45 cm and seeding rate 45 kg/ha.

In steppe arid regions, row spacing is increased to 60 cm.

For sowing, two-row or band methods are also used with distance in bands 10-15 cm, between bands — 45 cm.

Row method (13-15 cm) is used in cultivation of weakly branching early-ripening varieties on poor non-crusting soils, and also in the absence of weeds. In this case the row method is economically more advantageous, as it does not require inter-row treatments.

According to long-term data of 200 state variety plots, in 60% of cases continuous row sowings of buckwheat showed higher yield than wide-row. Only in 15-20% of cases did the wide-row method have an advantage.

With wide-row sowing, the direction of rows relative to cardinal directions matters. As a result of improved light regime and other ecological conditions, when sowing direction is north to south, good conditions are created for the development of powerful plants and less shading of each other.

Table. Effect of direction of sowing rows on buckwheat yield against fertilizer background (former Kamenno-Stepnaya Experimental Station).

Direction of rows	Yield by fertilizers, c/ha
Direction of rows	without fertilizers	P	K	PK	NPK
West to east	11.8	13.1	12.2	15.2	13.6
North to south	13.3	14.9	13.9	17.9	16.0

Seeding rates

Depending on soil-climatic conditions, varietal features and agricultural technology, seeding rate with the wide-row method varies from 1.5 to 3 million/ha germinating seeds or 45-60 kg/ha.

With the row method from 2.5 to 5 million/ha or 80-100 kg/ha.

On weed-infested fields and with the band method, seeding rate is increased by 15-20%.

Sowing depth

Sowing depth of buckwheat depends on seed size, sowing dates and soil properties. On moist heavy soils seeds are planted to 4-5 cm, on light, more drying — to 6-8 cm.

Shallow planting leads to thinning of seedlings, poor development of adventitious roots, and reduced grain setting.

At Chernigov Agricultural Experimental Station, buckwheat planted to depth 3-4 cm gave yield 15.3 c/ha, to 6-7 cm — 16.8 c/ha.

Combined sowings

In Belarus, combined sowings of buckwheat and winter rye are practiced, which allow increasing yield by 1.5-2 times. In autumn winter rye is sown in strips, the width of which is set by the header of the combine harvester. In spring between rye strips, buckwheat is sown in strips 7.2 or 10.8 m wide, that is 2-3 passes of a grain seeder. Strips are located on the rye-buckwheat field perpendicular to the direction of prevailing winds.

At Voronezh Agrarian University, good results were obtained with combined sowing of buckwheat and millet.

Crop care

Crop care begins with rolling the field with ribbed or ring rollers. When crust forms and weeds germinate before and after emergence, loosening is done with light harrows ZBP-0.6A, ZOR-0.4, medium harrows BZSS-1.0 or rotary hoes. Yield increase from this technique is up to 3 c/ha.

On wide-row sowings, when seedlings appear, inter-row cultivation is performed to depth 4-6 cm. As weeds grow and soil compacts before flowering, sowings are loosened 1-2 times with USMK-5.4A and weed control in rows is carried out. First inter-row cultivation is carried out in the phase of appearance of the first true leaf to depth 5-6 cm with protective zone 8-10 cm, second — in the budding phase to 6-8 cm in dry weather or 10-12 cm — in wet.

To improve pollination, 2-3 days before the beginning of flowering, bee hives are brought to sowings at rate 2-3 hives per 1 ha. Efficiency of bees depends on the amount of nectar secreted by buckwheat flowers and the degree of remoteness of the apiary from sowings. According to data of the Ukrainian Experimental Station of Beekeeping, buckwheat yield near the apiary was 18 c/ha, at distance 0.5 km — 12.8 c/ha, at 1 km — 9.6 c/ha.

When using herbicides and insecticides on buckwheat sowings to combat weeds and pests, special attention is paid to requirements of ecological safety, since buckwheat is a honey plant.

Aftermath and stubble sowings of buckwheat

Aftermath and stubble sowings serve as a fast, accessible and economical reserve for increasing gross harvest of buckwheat in the North Caucasus, Central Chernozem zone, and also in Ukraine, southeast Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. Stubble sowings of buckwheat in these regions allow obtaining 1.2-1.6 t grain per 1 ha.

As aftermath, buckwheat is sown after harvest of winter grains and spring crops for green fodder and silage; as stubble — after their harvest for grain. On irrigated lands, buckwheat can also be cultivated after these crops as stubble or aftermath in the reclamation field of a rice rotation.

In this case, soil preparation and sowing of buckwheat are carried out immediately after harvest of the main crop. Delay in sowing leads to a sharp decrease in yield. On irrigated lands before this, pre-sowing irrigation is done with rate 600-800 m³/ha water. During vegetation, according to Novocherkassk Engineering and Reclamation Institute, in the active soil layer (0-60 cm) humidity should be maintained at 80% of least moisture capacity. Complete mineral fertilizer is applied (N₄₅P₄₅K₄₅). Aftermath sowings are sown in wide-row method, on clean lands — continuous row. Rate and depth of sowing are increased (to 100-110 kg/ha).

Harvesting

Ripening of buckwheat fruits lasts 20-30 days; they easily shatter, and in dry weather the ripening period shortens, in rainy — lengthens. Therefore harvesting is carried out in a two-phase method, which begins when 65-85% fruits brown. When all fruits brown, losses reach 4.5 c/ha, therefore mowing is carried out in a short period of 3-4 days. Plants are mowed with headers, for example, ZhVN-6. Mowing is better done in morning or evening hours to reduce losses from shattering. After 5-6 days of drying (in dry weather 2-4 days), when grain reaches moisture 13-16%, threshing is done with combines with pickups. To avoid hulling grain, drum rotation frequency is reduced to 500-600 rpm, decks are lowered. For threshing windrows with normal moisture, it is better to use single-drum combines; with increased moisture — two-drum. Simultaneously with threshing, cleaning and drying of grain to moisture 14-15% are carried out.

Two-phase harvesting contributes to an increase in collection by 2 c/ha and more (experience of collective farms named after Lenin and "Krasny Pakhar", Nizhny Novgorod region).

The single-phase harvesting method is used for harvesting short and uniformly ripening early-ripening varieties. It is also used in rainy weather and sparse sowings.

Irrigation

Under irrigation, buckwheat significantly increases yield, however poorly tolerates soil crust formed during irrigation. First irrigation is done before sowing, then — at the beginning of the branching phase, during flowering and fruit formation. Water consumption — 500 m³/ha, irrigation method — by furrows through infiltration or sprinkling.

Sowing under irrigation is early wide-row. According to experiments of K. A. Savitsky and I. P. Reznichenko at farm "Gora" in Kiev region of Ukraine, on average over 2 years when sowing buckwheat on May 5 under irrigation, yield increased by 11 c/ha, May 20 — by 6.1 c/ha. With the row method, the increase from irrigation was 3.1 c/ha, with wide-row — 8.5 c/ha.

Progressive technologies

Application of progressive technology in Novoukrainsky district of Kirovograd region of Ukraine (collective farm "Russia") allowed increasing buckwheat yield from 12.5 c/ha (1971-1975) to 24.1 (1982), sown areas — from 178 ha (1971-1975) to 389 ha (1982). Share of buckwheat sown areas in the grain structure — 12%. Labor costs per 1 ha were 15.4 man-hours (1982).

The applied technology was developed by Kirovograd Zonal Agricultural Station.

Predecessor — grain spike crops, corn, sugar beet.

Soil treatment — stubble disking to depth 5-7 cm, fall plowing to 25-27 cm. In spring — harrowing and 2-3 cultivations with application under the last of 2.5 c/ha ammonium nitrate.

Sowing is carried out wide-row with beet seeder SST-12A with application in rows of 50 kg/ha superphosphate. Seed placement depth — 6 cm, seeding rate — 70 kg/ha. Variety Shatilovskaya 5.

Crop care includes rolling after sowing, two inter-row treatments to depth 3-6 cm, bee pollination.

Harvesting by two-phase method, mowing when 70-75% grains brown, threshing after 3-5 days.

Varieties

Bogatyr. Variety developed by Oryol Agricultural Experimental Station. Occupies first place in sown areas. Mid-ripening, demanding for heat and moisture, resistance to lodging and shattering average. Grain large. Mass of 1000 seeds 22-23 g, hull content 20%. High-yielding. Zoned in Central Chernozem zone, Volga region, North Caucasus, south of Non-Chernozem zone, Western Siberia, and also in Ukraine, Belarus and Kazakhstan.

Bolshevik 4. Variety developed at the Institute of Developmental Biology named after N. K. Koltsov. Mid-ripening, demanding for heat and moisture, relatively resistant to lodging and shattering. Zoned in Central Chernozem zone, North Ossetia, Dagestan, and also east of Kazakhstan.

Shatilovskaya 4. Variety developed by Oryol Agricultural Experimental Station. Mid-ripening, more resistant to lodging and drought than variety Bogatyr. Zoned in Non-Chernozem zone, Western Siberia, and also in Ukraine.

Kalininskaya. Variety developed by Kalinin Agricultural Experimental Station. Mid-ripening, resistant to lodging and shattering. Tolerates waterlogging and less demanding for heat. Seeds medium-large and even. Mass of 1000 grains 18-22 g, evenness 50-64%, grain hull content — 21-25%. Zoned in Non-Chernozem zone, Cis-Urals, Western and Eastern Siberia, Mari El Republic and Udmurtia.

List of sources

Vavilov P. P., Gritsenko V. V., Kuznetsov V. S. et al. (1986). Plant Growing. Ed. by Vavilov P. P. 5th ed., revised and enlarged. Moscow: Agropromizdat.
Kolomeychenko V. V. (2007). Plant Growing/Textbook. Moscow: Agrobusinesscenter.
Niklyaev V. S. (2000). Fundamentals of Agricultural Production Technology. Agriculture and Plant Growing. Moscow: "Bylina".