Lupin

Economic importance

Lupin was for a long time cultivated mainly as green manure. Due to its high nitrogen-fixing capacity and large accumulation of organic matter in the soil, lupin is one of the best green manure crops. Its plants accumulate 180–200 kg/ha (200–400 kg/ha) of nitrogen, which corresponds to 36–40 t/ha of manure.

The root system of lupin can penetrate deep into the soil and use sparingly soluble phosphates.

Yellow lupin can grow on poor sandy soils, for the improvement of which it is often used. Narrow-leaved lupin can improve heavy soils and increase the efficiency of physiologically acidic mineral fertilizers.

The protein content in white lupin seeds can reach 50%, but its use as feed remained problematic for a long time because of 1–2% bitter and toxic alkaloids contained in the seeds and aboveground mass, for example, lupinine, lupanine, sparteine. Lupinine is removed by soaking the seeds with repeated changes of water over several days. However, many cultivated lupin species contain practically none of this alkaloid as a result of breeding and selection.

Ripe beans are usually an inexpensive source of protein. Chemical composition of lupin seeds: protein — 14–50% (first place among grain legumes, sometimes up to 61%), fats — 5.4–8.8%, carbohydrates — 29–50%, minerals — 3.8–5.1%. Oil content in seeds varies greatly between varieties.

On the initiative of D. N. Pryanishnikov, alkaloid-free or so-called sweet lupin varieties were developed in the USSR, in which the alkaloid content was not more than 0.0025%. These varieties proved suitable for feed and even food purposes. Low-alkaloid varieties were also developed, with alkaloid content not more than 0.2%. These varieties proved more resistant than sweet ones to diseases and pests and can also be used for feed.

Lupin is relatively free from the antimetabolic and flatulence factors that other food legumes possess.

At present, lupin green mass is widely used for feed. In addition, lupin seeds are used in paint and varnish, soap-making industries, production of adhesives, plastics, artificial wool. Wastes after protein extraction (pomace) are used for feed. Lupin flour can be mixed with wheat flour to obtain an acceptable pasta product.

Some forms are used for ornamental purposes.

History of the crop

Important cultivated lupin species originated in the Mediterranean basin and include white lupin (Lupinus albus), yellow lupin (Lupinus luteus) and blue lupin (Lupinus angustifolius). Egyptian lupin is sometimes identified as Lupinus termis, but is currently considered a variety of Lupinus albus and is also widely grown. The genus Lupinus also has centers of origin in South and North America. Lupinus mutabilis of South American Andean origin is cultivated and known as sweet lupin. Lupinus pubescens is a wild form found in South America and possibly the ancestor of sweet lupin.

Lupin is an ancient crop and for centuries was cultivated in many European and African countries as a grain legume, as well as a cover crop and green manure. White lupin was cultivated 4–6 thousand years ago in the Mediterranean (Greece, Egypt, Rome). After soaking and boiling, the seeds were used for food and livestock feed.

In Russia, lupin has been known since the beginning of the 19th century, but began to spread only from the end of the 19th century. The first studies on the use of lupin in Russia were conducted in 1881 by P. V. Budrin. D. N. Pryanishnikov was a supporter of using lupin for green manure. By the end of the 20th century, its sown area in Russia had increased significantly. Studies of lupin as green manure were also conducted by S. P. Kulzhinsky and E. K. Alekseev.

Cultivation areas

At present, lupin is grown in Western European countries, with the largest sown areas in Germany and Poland.

In Russia, the main regions of lupin cultivation are the western and central areas of the Non-Chernozem zone. Its crops are also widespread in Belarus, Polesie and the Forest-Steppe of Ukraine, and the Baltic countries.

By the end of the 20th century, the world sown area was 1.5 million ha, or 1% of the area sown to grain legumes. Gross grain harvest was 1.5 million t with a yield of 1.0 t/ha.

In Russia, there are no exact statistics on lupin sown area. It is assumed that at the end of the 20th century the area was about 200 thousand ha. Green mass yield is from 20 to 60 t/ha, seeds — 1–2 t/ha.

Yield

Lupin is a high-yielding crop. Varieties of yellow fodder lupin can produce more than 40 t/ha of green mass. In Bryansk region (kolkhoz “Put Lenina”) its yield reached 45 t/ha on an area of 570 ha, at Novozybkov Experimental Station VNIIUA — 70 t/ha.

New alkaloid-free varieties of grain lupin in the forest-steppe zone exceed varieties of peas in yield by 8 dt/ha, and in protein collection by 2 times.

Botanical description

Lupin (Lupinus L.) is a herbaceous plant of the legume family. It has many annual and perennial forms.

The root system is taprooted and can penetrate to a depth of 2 m.

The stem is branched, erect, ribbed, pubescent. Depending on the species, plant height varies from 30 to more than 150 cm.

The leaves are palmate, digitate, consisting of 5–11 leaflets.

The inflorescence is a terminal elongated raceme, located on the main stem and lateral branches, has various shapes, up to 50 cm in size.

Flowers, depending on the species, can have various colors: white, yellow, blue, violet, sometimes mottled. Pollination of yellow and perennial lupins is cross-pollination; white and narrow-leaved lupins are self-pollinating.

Beans are leathery, flattened, pubescent. Beans of large-seeded species (white lupin) are hairy, flattened, 7–15 cm long. They contain three or four seeds, oval and flat, resembling Lima bean. Beans of small-seeded species are 3 to 6 cm long. When ripening, except for white lupin, they crack, the seeds scatter, and the bean valves coil spirally.

Seeds also differ in shape and size. Perennial forms have small seeds, annual forms have large ones. The color is white, gray, mottled, pink; in perennial forms also black or brown. The weight of one seed varies from 150 to 330 mg.

In Russia, the following lupin varieties are widespread: yellow, white, narrow-leaved, perennial.

Perennial lupin

Main page: Garden lupin

Ecological requirements

It is demanding for moisture, therefore it is cultivated mainly in areas with sufficient moisture. According to other data, lupin is drought-resistant.

It is undemanding to soils, so it is often grown on soils poor in nutrients, where it usually shows better results than other legumes. Well-drained, coarse-grained soils are preferred, since lupins are susceptible to root rots, often associated with cold, wet and fine-grained soils. Soils with a shallow arable layer, strongly compacted subsoil, waterlogged and saline, strongly limed are not recommended for this crop. It tolerates an acidic soil reaction, but moderately acidic with pH 5–6 is optimal.

The heat requirements of annual lupins depend on the length of the growing season. Seed germination begins at a temperature of 4–5°C.

Seeds of narrow-leaved lupin begin to germinate at +5°C. Seedlings withstand frosts down to -5…-7°C (-2…-4°C). It is less heat-loving than yellow and white lupins, and more demanding for moisture. It can be grown on poor sandy, loamy and clay soils.

Yellow lupin is more heat-loving than narrow-leaved lupin. Frosts below -2…-5°C can lead to plant death. It can be grown on the same soils as narrow-leaved lupin. It is better adapted to sandy soils, but tolerates acidic soils worse.

White lupin is distinguished by much greater heat-loving ability, heat and drought resistance, unlike other varieties. It does not tolerate negative temperatures. It is more demanding for fertility, but can also be cultivated on sandy soils.

Perennial lupin is a cold-resistant plant.

Species of European origin are long-day plants.

Vegetation

The growing season is from 120 to 180 days.

Vegetation phases:

• sprouts;
• 2 true leaves;
• stem formation;
• budding;
• blue-green beans;
• shiny beans;
• ripe beans.

Perennial lupin in the year of sowing forms a rosette of leaves; in the spring of the next year it grows back quickly, giving 3–4 cuts in the south and 2 cuts in the north during the summer period. It ripens in 60–65 days. It can grow in one place for 8–10 years. The maximum yield is reached in the third year after sowing. In the first cut, up to 30 t/ha of green mass can be collected.

Crop rotation

Lupin is undemanding to preceding crops. Optimal are cereals, buckwheat, brassicas, for example, mustard, rapeseed.

Lupin for green manure or green mass is placed in occupied fallow. In efficiency, green-manure fallows surpass clean fallows, especially on light soils. According to data from Perm Agricultural Institute (Gurenev, 1974), over 8 years on light soils of the Cis-Urals, plowing in 31.3 t/ha of green mass of narrow-leaved lupin made it possible to increase rye yield to 2.2 t/ha; with clean fallow the yield was 1.5 t/ha of grain.

Under spring cereals, stubble sowings of lupin after early-harvested crops, for example, rye, vetch-oat mixture, are used as green manure. Two-way use of lupin is also possible — for feed and green manure. For this, at the flowering stage the plants are cut for feed, and later the regrown aftermath is plowed in in autumn.

When cultivating lupin for seeds, it is sown after winter or row crops. On sandy soils in crop rotation it is usually alternated with rye and potato. For feed, green mass is cut at the shiny bean stage and ensiled mainly with maize.

Lupin serves as a good predecessor for all field crops due to the aftereffect, which persists in crop rotation for up to 8 years.

Fertilizer

Phosphorus and potassium fertilizers are applied under lupin when the content of these elements in the soil is less than 5–10 mg/100 g of soil. If these fertilizers need to be applied, the application rates are P_30-45K_60-90.

Lupin responds well to phosphorus-potassium fertilizers. It can absorb phosphates of sparingly soluble compounds, for example, phosphorite and bone meal. Potassium fertilizers help increase resistance to diseases, increase yield and accelerate ripening.

Nitrogen fertilizers are usually not applied under lupin, because instead of accumulating it, it begins to use it.

On poor sandy and heavy clay soils, especially when growing for seeds, it is recommended to apply 25–30 t/ha of lowland peat under autumn plowing.

Lupin also responds well to molybdenum and boron micronutrients, which promote the activity of nitrogen-fixing bacteria.

To prevent the negative effect of lime fertilizers, it is advisable to apply magnesium-containing fertilizers (dolomite flour) under lupin.

Tillage

Tillage consists of stubble discing after harvesting the predecessor (if the field is weedy) and ordinary autumn plowing to a depth of 25–27 cm. If necessary, deepening of the arable layer is carried out.

Early in spring, harrowing and cultivation are carried out. Depending on soil compaction, instead of cultivation, deep loosening or plowing with harrowing is carried out.

Due to strong suppression by weeds, which can reduce lupin yield by up to 30%, weed control is especially important, including agrotechnical methods.

Sowing

Sowing methods

The sowing method is row sowing with the seeder set for upper sowing.

For white lupin, and sometimes for all annual forms, the wide-row method with 45 cm row spacing is also used for seeds.

Crop care

Pre-emergence or post-emergence harrowing of crops is not carried out, since fragile seedlings are easily damaged by the harrow. V. V. Kolomeichenko suggests carrying out pre-emergence harrowing with light tooth or mesh harrows 6–7 days after sowing, and at the 3–4 leaf stage — post-emergence harrowing.

Before the budding phase, lupin development is slow, so it can be strongly suppressed by weeds.

In wide-row crops, 2–3 inter-row cultivations are carried out.

Pest control preparations

Against pests typical of grain legumes (bean moth, pea weevil, pea moth, aphids), spraying with Rogor-S is carried out during the growing season.

Herbicides

The use of the soil pre-sowing herbicide prometryn for spraying the soil at a dose of 3–5 kg/ha of the preparation reduces weed infestation by 80–90%.

In lupin crops, the herbicide Fusilade Forte is used against annual and perennial grass weeds. Spraying is carried out at the 2–4 leaf stage of the weeds, regardless of the crop’s vegetation phase.

Harvesting

Ripening of lupin beans and seeds occurs unevenly. To reduce losses from shattering, it is recommended to begin two-phase harvesting when 70–80% of the beans have browned and the seeds have hardened.

The single-phase method can be used with early and uniform ripening, a low stand, and in southern regions. Single-phase harvesting begins when 90% of the beans have browned. At high humidity, cut lupin dries quite well in swaths, but losses from bean cracking must not be allowed.

With uneven ripening of beans and delayed ripening due to cold weather, leaves are removed before harvesting or the plants are dried. For this, the crops are treated with defoliants or desiccants. Drying accelerates seed ripening, reduces their moisture by 5–6%, facilitates harvesting, and low moisture promotes better storage. Desiccation allows single-phase harvesting to begin 10–15 days earlier.

Cutting and threshing are carried out by grain combines equipped with a PLK attachment.

When storing under-dried seeds, the risk of mold development and loss of germination sharply increases. Seed moisture before storage should be no more than 14%.

When using lupin for preparing winter feed, harvesting is carried out at the shiny bean stage with forage harvesters.

Plowing in lupin for green manure is carried out at the end of flowering — beginning of bean setting, when the green mass is maximum. If winter crops are planned after plowing in, it is carried out no later than 2–3 weeks before sowing. For more convenient plowing in of the green mass, it is first cut or rolled, then disked. If the soil after plowing in does not have time to settle before sowing winter crops, it is rolled.

In the case of aftercut or stubble cultivation of lupin, soil treatment is carried out immediately after harvesting the predecessor, in order to allow accumulation of maximum green mass. Its incorporation into the soil is carried out in late autumn or early spring.

Features of cultivating perennial lupin

Varieties

List of sources

1. Vavilov P. P., Gritsenko V. V., Kuznetsov V. S. et al. (1986). Crop Production. Ed. Vavilov P. P. 5th ed., revised and enlarged. Moscow: Agropromizdat.
2. Kolomeichenko V. V. (2007). Crop Production/Textbook. Moscow: Agrobiznescentr.
3. Niklyaev V. S. (2000). Fundamentals of Agricultural Production Technology. Agriculture and Crop Production. Moscow: “Bylina”.
4. Rubatzky, Vincent E., Yamaguchi, Mas. (1997). World vegetables: principles, production, and nutritive values. 2nd ed.
5. S_20