Proso millet
Proso millet (Panicum miliaceum).
Proso millet — a food groat crop.
Economic importance
Millet groats are obtained from proso millet; in taste and nutritional properties they rank among the best among groats. They are distinguished by increased protein and fat content.
Millet groats are obtained by separating the grain from the husks.
Flour is not made from proso millet, because bread from it is of low quality and quickly stales.
Grain and waste (meal, husks) obtained in groat production serve as feed for animals and poultry. 1 kg of proso millet grain corresponds to 0.97 feed units, straw — 0.51 feed units, chaff — 0.42 feed units. Grain is usually used to feed pigs and poultry, straw and chaff — cattle. In quality they are similar to average hay. Straw of proso millet contains 6.9% protein, 1.8% fat, 27.8% fiber and 40.7% nitrogen-free extractives. In some regions, proso millet is cultivated for green fodder and hay. Proso millet hay is not inferior in nutritive value to mohar, and is more tender. 1 feed unit corresponds to 5.1 kg of green mass of proso millet, vetch-oat mixture — 5.5 kg.
Grain can be used for malt production.
Due to the low seeding rate, later sowing dates and short growing season, proso millet serves as an insurance and stubble crop. Under a long stubble period, for example in the North Caucasus, Middle and Lower Volga, Ukraine, two harvests per year can be obtained. Summer sowings of proso millet serve as a cover crop for perennial grasses.
Proso millet is one of the most drought-resistant and heat-resistant crops, able to withstand scorching and searing, which is of great importance for arid regions and dry years. Also, proso millet is less damaged by pests and diseases than other cereal crops.
History of the crop
Proso millet is an ancient agricultural crop; it began to be cultivated 4–5 thousand years BC (2700 years BC, Kolomeichenko V. V.). According to N. I. Vavilov, common proso millet originates from East and Central Asia. It probably penetrated into Europe with nomadic peoples from Asia. Proso millet reached America from Europe.
In Russia it has been known since ancient times. Proso millet is mentioned in chronicles of the 11th century, in Russian epics and songs. In excavations near Minsk, grains dated to the 6th–7th centuries AD were found.
Cultivation areas and yield
In the 1980s, among grain crops by sown area (43 million ha) and yield (6.6 c/ha), it occupied one of the last places in the world. It is most widespread in Asia (23.4 million ha) and Africa (16.4 million ha). Producing countries include Russia, China, Mongolia, India, Afghanistan, Turkey, Japan, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Bulgaria; small areas exist in Africa and the eastern USA.
In the USSR, sown area was in 1971–1975 — 2,742 thousand ha, in 1976–1980 — 3 million ha.
By the end of the 20th century, the sown area of proso millet in the world was 83 million ha, or 12% of the sown area of grain crops. The gross grain harvest of proso millet was 95 million t, or 5% of the total grain harvest. Average yield — 1.2 t/ha.
In Russia in 2001–2005, the sown area was 1 million ha, or 2% of the sown area of grains; grain harvest was 0.8 million t with an average yield of 1.0 t/ha (in 1997 — 1.12 t/ha).
High heat requirements and drought resistance determine the main regions of proso millet cultivation. In Russia these include the southeast of the Volga region, the Central Chernozem zone, the North Caucasus, Western Siberia; in the Non-Chernozem zone — up to 57° N (early-ripening varieties), small areas in Eastern Siberia. Among the republics of the former USSR — Kazakhstan and Ukraine.
With good agricultural practices or under irrigation, proso millet is capable of producing high yields, since one panicle can form up to 1 thousand grains weighing 6–7 g, reaching 15–35 c/ha. For example, in Shebekinsky district of Belgorod oblast ("Novaya Zhizn") and Millerovsky district of Rostov oblast ("Rassvet") — more than 5 t/ha; in Talovsky district of Voronezh oblast (Kalinin collective farm) yield reached 35.3 c/ha; in Aktobe oblast (Kazakhstan) ("Pobeda" state farm) — 30.0 c/ha; in Lebedinsky district of Sumy oblast (Ukraine) (Shevchenko collective farm) — 24.1 c/ha; in Krasnokutsky district of Saratov oblast (Comintern collective farm) — 21.4 c/ha.
Botanical description
Common proso millet (Panicum miliaceum) is an annual plant belonging to the genus Panicum. The genus foxtail millet (Setaria V.) is also cultivated. The inflorescence of proso millet is a panicle; that of foxtail millet is a spike-like panicle. The cultivated genus Setaria is represented by Italian millet (Setaria italica), including subspecies: Setaria italica — Italian millet proper, or foxtail millet, and Setaria italica subsp. moharia (mogarium) — mohar. Italian millet differs from mohar by a longer panicle up to 15–30 cm and the presence of lobes. It is grown on small areas for grain in Central Asian countries, Primorye and Transcaucasia.
Mohar is cultivated mainly for fodder purposes: grain for poultry feed, hay and green fodder.
In sowings, common proso millet is most widespread. Weight of 1000 grains is 5–10 g.
Root system
The root system of proso millet is fibrous and germinates with one rootlet. Secondary roots form from tillering nodes. The power of the root system is determined not so much by the depth of occurrence, which can reach 105–150 cm, as by lateral spread (up to 120 cm) and the number of root shoots, reaching up to 120. The bulk of roots is located in the 20-cm layer; 80% of roots are concentrated to a depth of 40 cm.
Depending on the vegetation phase, the share of roots in the total plant mass is:
- from emergence to tillering — 20%;
- from tillering to stem elongation — 35%;
- from stem elongation to heading — 30%.
After the heading phase begins, root mass growth slows down; by flowering it stops.
From the lower aboveground nodes of the stem, aerial support roots can develop, which increase resistance to lodging and drought. Plants form a root system by the heading phase, which allows more complete use of moisture, unlike other cereals. In dry weather, the formation of nodal roots slows down, and semi-lodged seedlings live for a long time at the expense of seminal roots. With sufficient soil moisture, nodal roots develop rapidly, reaching a depth of 40–50 cm in 15–20 days.
The assimilating capacity of roots is lower than that of oats and barley, therefore proso millet grows worse on old-arable lands and responds well to fertilizers.
Stem
The stem is a hollow straw, 70–100 cm high, forms shoots from the tillering node (tillering) and aboveground stem nodes (branching). One plant forms from 5 to 20 shoots depending on the feeding area. This property is used in wide-row and stubble sowings.
Leaves
Leaves are up to 65 cm long, lanceolate, broad pubescent blade. The ligule is short, with cilia, auricles absent.
Inflorescence
The inflorescence of proso millet is a panicle 10–40 cm long, strongly branched, number of branches from 10 to 40. At the ends of the branches, one spikelet is located.
Spikelets are two-flowered; mainly one upper flower develops; under favorable conditions, development of the second flower is possible, then two grains form in the spikelet.
Flowers are bisexual, have three stamens and an ovary with two plumose stigmas. Facultative self-pollinator. Cross-pollination accounts for 20%.
The grain is small, spherical or oval, hulled, without a groove and tuft. Weight of 1000 grains varies from 4 to 10 g (more often 6–8 g), hull content is 12–22%. Hull content decreases with increasing grain weight. The color of the hulls (scales) can be red, cream, bronze, gray, yellow.
The groat yield depends on grain size, shape and hull content; on average it is 67–84%.
Subspecies
Depending on the panicle shape, common proso millet is subdivided (according to I. V. Popov):
- spreading (patentissimun Popov) is distinguished by a straight and long panicle axis, branches strongly deviated from the axis, pads present at the base of all branches;
- diffuse (effusum Al.) — panicle axis straight and long, lateral branches less deviated from the axis, pads present only at lower branches;
- contracted, or drooping (contractum Al.) — axis long, curved, lateral branches pressed to the main stem, pads absent or weakly expressed;
- oval, or semi-compact (ovatum Popov) — panicle shortened, dense, lower branches deviated, upper ones pressed to the axis, pads present only at lower branches;
- compact (compactum Korn) — panicle short, straight, dense, with short lateral branches pressed to the main axis, no pads.
A relationship has been established between panicle structure and biological and economic properties of proso millet. Thus, proso millet with a spreading panicle is less heat-loving, drought-resistant and demanding of soils, but has the greatest early maturity, therefore it advances farther north than other subspecies. The grain is small, with lower groat yield. The contracted subspecies is more heat-loving and drought-resistant, distinguished by strong development, large grain and good groat yield. Compact proso millet is the most heat-loving and drought-resistant, but in grain size and groat yield it is inferior to contracted.
Subspecies are also subdivided into varieties depending on degree of grain threshability, color of scales, presence/absence of anthocyanin coloration on spikelet scales. Varieties with anthocyanin coloration are characterized by greater early maturity within the subspecies. Released varieties are distinguished by difficult-to-thresh grain.
Table. Varieties of proso millet.
| Subspecies | Grain yellow or cream | Grain red | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Color of spikelet scales without anthocyanin | Color of spikelet scales with anthocyanin | Color of spikelet scales without anthocyanin | Color of spikelet scales with anthocyanin | |
| Spreading | Vitellinum Popov | Subvitellinum Popov | — | — |
| Diffuse | Flavum Korn | Subflavum Korn | Coccineum Korn | Subcoccineum Korn |
| Contracted | Aureum Al. | Subaureum Al. | Sangineum Al. | Subsangineum Al. |
| Compact | Densum Korn | Subdensum Korn | Dacicum Korn | Subdacicum Korn |
Biological features
Temperature requirements
Proso millet belongs to heat-loving plants. Seeds begin to germinate at 8–10°C, viable and uniform seedlings appear at 12–15°C after 5–7 days. Biologically optimal temperature at which most vigorous seed germination is achieved is 20–30°C, maximum at which it stops is 40°C.
Germination times depending on temperature:
- at 8°C — 10–15 days;
- at 15°C — 4–5 days;
- at 20–25°C — 3 days.
Seedlings are damaged by frosts -2…-3°C; at -3°C they die. In subsequent vegetation phases the heat requirement is also high. Favorable temperatures for growth are:
- emergence — tillering — 18°C;
- tillering — heading — 20°C;
- heading — flowering — 23°C (minimum +15°C);
- flowering — ripening — 21°C.
With lack of heat during vegetation and in rainy years, proso millet reduces yield, protein content in grain decreases by 1.5 times.
Sum of active temperatures for the entire vegetation period is 1800–2300°C. With late sowing dates, there is risk of plants being exposed to autumn frosts. Frost-damaged grain stores poorly.
Unlike other cereals, proso millet better tolerates high temperatures. This is explained by the fact that stomatal cells retain regulatory ability at 38–40°C for 48 h.
Moisture requirements
Proso millet is less demanding of moisture than other cereals. During seed germination, they absorb only 25% of water from their own mass. Transpiration coefficient is 125–300 (generalized). The root system has good suction power and is able to extract soil moisture even when its content is about one and a half times hygroscopicity. N. I. Vavilov classified this agricultural crop as among the most drought-resistant.
Drought resistance is explained by the ability to temporarily suspend growth, roll leaves and spread the aboveground part over the ground to reduce moisture evaporation. Plants are able to endure wilting and tissue dehydration for a long time.
Proso millet tolerates drought better from emergence to stem elongation. The period from the end of tillering to grain formation is critical for proso millet in terms of water requirement. Yield depends on the provision of plants with moisture and nutrients during this period. Maximum water consumption occurs from stem elongation to the end of heading. A sufficient moisture reserve must be present during the formation of nodal roots.
It has been established that over 20 days from the beginning of heading, precipitation of less than 30 mm leads to reduced yield.
Proso millet differs from other grain crops in that it uses precipitation of the second half of summer very well.
It is responsive to irrigation. Proso millet yield under irrigation at the Valuysky experimental reclamation station of the Volga SRI of Hydraulic Engineering and Reclamation was 4–4.5 t/ha, without irrigation — 0.6–0.8 t/ha.
Light requirements
Proso millet is a light-loving plant, since a large amount of organic matter accumulates over a short vegetation period. According to data of A. A. Nalivkin and P. P. Vavilov, proso millet responds to improved light regime when rows are oriented from north to south with a yield increase of 6–10%.
The greatest intensity of photosynthesis occurs from the beginning of grain filling to full ripeness. For this reason, cloudy weather in the second half of vegetation leads to prolonged vegetation. Shading of plants due to thickening or weed infestation also negatively affects yield.
A typical short-day plant. As it advances north, proso millet lengthens the vegetation period; accordingly, with later sowing dates and stubble sowings, the time for vegetation decreases by 15–20 days.
Soil requirements
Proso millet does well on fertile, structured soils with a large reserve of available nutrients. Chernozem and chestnut soils are best suited. Other soil types are also acceptable, especially when fertilizers are applied. Heavy clayey and solonetzic soils are undesirable.
It does not tolerate increased acidity; optimal pH is 6.5–7.5.
It places increased demands on nitrogen nutrition.
Vegetation
Vegetation period — 55–120 days, average 80 days.
Productive tillering is usually 2–3 stems. With wide-row sowing — up to 7–10 stems.
In the first 2–3 weeks after emergence, growth is slow, so this should be taken into account when combating weeds.
Under unfavorable conditions, the tillering phase and nodal root regrowth are delayed, which can lead to lodging, blowing out and breaking of roots. Tillering and nodal root regrowth are promoted by sufficient reserves of moisture and nutrients in the soil, observance of sowing dates and depth, and absence of weeds.
Phases of proso millet vegetation:
- seed germination;
- emergence (depending on temperature — 7–10 days after sowing);
- third leaf — growth stops, secondary roots begin to develop slowly (from tillering to heading development sharply accelerates);
- tillering — occurs later than in other grasses — 15–20 days after emergence; under unfavorable conditions it is prolonged and leads to formation of shoots without inflorescences (podsed);
- stem elongation — 10–12 days after tillering begins, accompanied by intensive growth of aboveground mass and roots, differentiation and growth of generative organs occur;
- heading — 20–25 days after tillering (30–35 days after emergence in early varieties and 45–50 days in late ones), the phase is extended, which leads to differences in panicle productivity and uneven ripening, duration 18–20 days;
- flowering — 2–6 days from the beginning of heading, stem and root system growth stops, flowering occurs in the morning, especially intensively from 10 to 11 h. Flowering begins from the upper flowers, gradually spreads downward and into the depth of the panicle. Panicle flowering lasts 10–12 days, phase duration — 7–16 days;
- ripening is non-simultaneous and extended over 15–20 days. Grain begins to ripen in the upper part of the panicle, then in the middle and, finally, in the lower.
Crop rotation
Proso millet does not tolerate continuous sowings. At the former Kharkov Agricultural Experimental Station over 16 years with continuous sowing, the yield averaged 9.7 c/ha, in crop rotation — 16.9 c/ha. Proso millet places high demands on predecessors, which is associated with slow growth at the beginning of development, due to which plants can be strongly suppressed by weeds and affected by diseases, for example, fusarium, helminthosporiosis.
Proso millet shows the highest yield when sown on virgin land, fallow and plowland/turnover of perennial grass layer, provided sufficient soil moisture. V. R. Williams classified proso millet as a plowland crop. With good agricultural practices on fields clean of weeds, it can produce high yields after leguminous crops (annual), well-fertilized potatoes, melons.
Proso millet is usually not placed before and after maize, since both crops are affected by a common pest — the corn borer. In its absence, maize can serve as a good predecessor.
In the Volga region and some other regions of Russia, as well as in Ukraine, proso millet is placed after winter crops following clean fallows.
Satisfactory predecessors are considered sunflower, sugar beet.
Under conditions of the arid steppe with wide-row sowing, proso millet can serve as a predecessor for spring grain crops.
Table. Influence of predecessors on proso millet yield, average over 3 years, c/ha.
| Institution | Barley | Maize | Sugar beet | Potato | Perennial grasses | Leguminous crops |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Kharkov Experimental Station | 14.2 | — | 12.0 | 15.3 | — | 15.8 |
| Poltava Experimental Station | 18.6 | 23.7 | 22.6 | — | 24.9 | 25.7 |
| Krasnograd Experimental Station | 15.0 | 17.9 | 16.0 | 19.2 | 19.0 | 21.6 |
| VNII of Leguminous Crops | 25.2 | 28.4 | 25.4 | 28.7 | — | 30.0 |
Fertilizer
1 t of proso millet grain harvest and corresponding amount of straw (2 t) contains on average 25–30 kg nitrogen, 14–20 kg phosphorus, 15–35 kg potassium and 10 kg calcium. In nitrogen consumption, proso millet approaches spring wheat, surpassing other cereals of the first group. Especially much potassium, calcium and phosphorus are removed with the harvest of this crop, surpassing all grains except maize.
Proso millet assimilates nutrients unevenly, almost all before ripening. In the period emergence — tillering, about 7% of required nutrients is needed, then consumption intensity sharply increases. For example, in phases tillering — flowering, nutrient removal from soil is more than 65% (70% nitrogen and 60% phosphorus, almost 100% potassium), in the period flowering — ripening — 28–30% of their total amount. Maximum consumption of nitrogen, potassium and calcium occurs at flowering, phosphorus — at grain filling.
To determine fertilizer rates, the balance method is used. 2/3 of phosphorus and potassium are applied under the main autumn treatment, the rest is applied in rows and in top dressing; nitrogen — in spring under pre-sowing cultivation and in top dressings.
Main fertilizer
Proso millet is responsive to organic and mineral fertilizers, especially their combined application. At the same time, the nature of nutrient consumption by proso millet plants corresponds to the rates of their mobilization from fertilizers and soil.
According to experiments of the former Kharkov Agricultural Experimental Station over 12 years, the increase in grain yield from applying 18 t/ha of manure was 8.4 c/ha, from the aftereffect of organic fertilizers — 2.5–5 c/ha. Good use of the aftereffect of fertilizers allows placing proso millet after well-fertilized winter and row crops, while only mineral fertilizers are applied directly under it.
Table. Influence of mineral fertilizers on proso millet yield (geographic network of experiments of VNIIUA).
| Institution | Fertilizer rate | Yield in control, c/ha | Increase in yield from fertilizers, c/ha | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PK | NP | NK | NPK | |||
| Central regions of the Non-Chernozem zone, podzolic and gray forest soils | ||||||
| Ivanovo Agricultural Institute | N45P60K60 | 19.2 | 1.7 | 2.9 | 3.5 | 5.9 |
| Gorky Agricultural Experimental Station | N60P60K60 | 23.0 | 2.5 | 6.3 | 7.7 | 8.5 |
| Steppe regions of the Central Chernozem zone and Middle Volga, chernozems | ||||||
| Mitrofanovskoe Experimental Field (Voronezh oblast) | N30P30K30 | 33.8 | 3.7 | 1.9 | 2.9 | 4.2 |
| former Bezenchuk Experimental Station (Samara oblast) | N45P45K45 | 24.6 | 1.1 | 2.0 | 2.5 | 5.0 |
| Eastern Siberia, leached chernozems | ||||||
| former Kamalinsk Selection Station (Krasnoyarsk krai) | N45P45K45 | 32.7 | — | 5.7 | 6.7 | 6.7 |
Effectiveness of various fertilizers depends on soil type. For example, in southern regions on ordinary chernozems the greatest yield increase is given by phosphorus fertilizers, in forest-steppe regions on gray forest soils and leached chernozems — nitrogen fertilizers, then phosphorus. The effect of potassium fertilizers is significantly manifested only on soils poor in potassium.
On leached chernozems, gray forest and podzolic soils, phosphorite flour is used.
Complex fertilizers are effective. According to data of the Ukrainian Agricultural Academy, application of nitrophoska on chernozem soils depending on composition and type of nutrients (chlorine-free and nitrogen-sulfate) gave a yield increase from 2.4 to 9.5 c/ha (8.6–28.4%).
Row fertilizer
The phosphorus reserve in proso millet seed is very small, and the development of the root system at the beginning of growth is very slow and cannot effectively use the reserves of this element in the soil. This determines the high return from row application of granulated superphosphate at a rate of 50 kg/ha (P10-15) together with seeds, ensuring a yield increase of 2.5–3.5 c/ha. Thus, in Olkhovatsky district of Voronezh oblast ("Zarya" collective farm), row application of nitrophoska at 50 kg/ha during sowing increased proso millet grain yield by 5 c/ha.
Top dressing
The extended consumption of nutrients during vegetation and their effective consumption by proso millet plants in the second half of vegetation determine the high effectiveness of top dressing.
Top dressing is carried out with sufficient moistening of the upper soil layer in the tillering phase or beginning of stem elongation at a rate of N20-30P20-30. Potassium can also be applied in top dressing.
With wide-row sowings, top dressing is combined with the first inter-row cultivation with cultivator-plant feeders; fertilizers are incorporated to a depth of 6–8 cm, at a distance of 8–10 cm from the row, application rate N15-20. To increase grain protein content, a second top dressing during filling is possible.
Soil cultivation
Considering that in the initial stages of growth proso millet is strongly subject to suppression by weeds, stubble disking or disking of perennial grasses and early autumn plowing are of great importance in the agricultural technology of this crop. According to data of Voronezh Agricultural Institute, plowing in August increased proso millet yield by 11% compared with plowing in September, and by 33.7% compared with treatment in October.
When rosettes of root-suckering weeds appear, disking is carried out twice, for example with LDH-15A, LDH-10A, LDH-5A disk harrows or BDT-10, BDT-7.0, BDT-3.0, BD-10A disk harrows. When infested with various perennial weeds, share disk harrows are used.
With slight field infestation, for example after row crops, disking may not be carried out, limiting to autumn treatment.
In the Altai, Volga region, North Caucasus, as well as northern Kazakhstan and other areas prone to erosion processes, a soil-protective soil tillage system is used. It consists of flat-cut autumn soil treatment with KPG-250 cultivators to a depth of 25–27 cm. According to data of the Kazakh SRIZ, proso millet yield increased from 7.7 to 10.1 c/ha compared with conventional plowing to the same depth.
With a long warm autumn, the autumn plowland is additionally harrowed during plowing. Further treatment is carried out as a semi-fallow, which allows the field to be well cleaned of weeds. In the case of a short autumn with early frosts, disking and semi-fallow treatment are not carried out, and immediately after harvesting the predecessor, deep plowing is performed.
Despite drought resistance, proso millet responds to increased soil moisture. Therefore, methods of snow and meltwater retention in arid regions substantially contribute to increasing yield.
Pre-sowing soil treatment is also important. It includes early spring harrowing in two passes or harrowing with a train, two cultivations. The first cultivation is carried out to a depth of 8–10 cm when weeds appear, the second — to 4–5 cm (or sowing depth) before sowing.
When stubble is preserved from autumn, needle harrows are used for harrowing, and flat-cutters and erosion-control implements for cultivation. Depending on weather conditions, two harrowings in 2 passes with an interval of 3–4 hours are possible.
For uniform incorporation of small seeds to a shallow depth, the field is rolled before sowing. In the case of a dry spring, rolling is carried out after the first cultivation, which helps preserve moisture and better germination of weeds, which are destroyed by the second cultivation. For example, in Bazarno-Karabulaksky district of Saratov oblast ("Rossiya" collective farm), proso millet yield over 2 years without rolling after two cultivations averaged 17 c/ha, with rolling — 18.6 c/ha.
The use of combined aggregates for pre-sowing soil preparation, for example RVK-3.6, RVK-5.4, VIP-5.6, is effective.
Sowing
Seed preparation
For sowing, large seeds with high germination and germination energy are used. According to data of the Department of Plant Production of MSKhA named after K. A. Timiryazev, the best sowing qualities are distinguished by large seeds with a diameter from 1.7 to 2 mm, heavy seeds. Separation of seeds from the upper part of the panicle using the "Sibiryak" two-drum combine and sorting them by density (according to N. A. Maisuryan) contributed to an increase in yield up to 20%.
To prepare seeds for sowing, thermal treatment is used, consisting of moistening them with hot water (25 l per 100 kg of seeds) and keeping at 22–28°C for 2 days in a heap, followed by drying to flowability.
Air-thermal treatment (20–30 days before sowing) and seed dressing with dry preparations are also performed: granosan (with dye), mercurbenzene (1 kg/t seeds), vitavax, benlate.
Preliminary dry dressing 2–3 months before sowing is more effective. To prevent smut, 2–3 days before sowing, seeds are treated with 40% aqueous formalin solution at 0.33 l/t seeds. After wetting, seeds are covered with tarpaulin for 2 h.
For seed dressing, preparations are used:
- Ferazim (500 g/l carbendazim) — against fusarium root rot, smut;
- Fenoram Super (470 g/kg carboxin + 230 g/kg thiram) — against smut.
Sowing dates
Sowing dates are determined so that a sufficient moisture reserve remains at the depth of seed placement, and emergence does not coincide with frosts. The optimal sowing date for proso millet is more extended than for other cereals. However, with very early and too late sowing, field germination of seeds decreases.
According to data of Michurinsk Fruit and Vegetable Institute, field germination of seeds when sown at temperature less than 10°C was 22%, at 12–15°C — 76%; at temperature more than 30°C — 32%. According to data of the former Chakinsk Experimental Station (Tambov oblast), infestation by millet mosquito at early sowing dates (May 7–17) was 35%, at late dates (May 27–June 10) — up to 92%.
The optimal sowing date for proso millet is considered the period when the soil at the depth of seed placement (or 10 cm) warms to 10–15°C. According to data of the Department of Plant Production of MSKhA named after K. A. Timiryazev, for the Non-Chernozem zone this is May 20–June 1, forest-steppe zone — May 10–20, steppe zone — May 1–10.
Experiments of Voronezh Agricultural Institute showed good results with late sowings in late May–early June, especially with high field infestation. In this case, there is an opportunity to better clean fields of weeds through additional cultivations. Over 5 years, yield in these experiments averaged: when sowing April 30 — 23.3 c/ha; May 15 — 27.7 c/ha; June 5 — 29.4 c/ha. Later sowing dates led to reduced yield. Also in Saratov oblast, sowing proso millet in June allowed obtaining 0.5 c/ha more grain than sowing in May.
The advantages of late sowing are formed due to additional measures against weeds, emergence and development of seedlings in warm weather. However, this is true only with sufficient preservation of moisture reserves.
In the south, stubble sowings of proso millet for grain after harvesting early-harvested crops or aftercut sowings are also used.
Sowing methods
Proso millet by its biological properties belongs to row crops, since it is distinguished by high tillering, slow initial growth, weed infestation, increased demand for solar insolation, and predominant lateral spread of roots. This determines the use of wide-row sowing, which creates good conditions for growth and development of proso millet plants. At the same time, determination of the sowing method should take into account soil fertility, preceding crop, moisture supply and field infestation.
Studies by experimental stations in different zones of the country over many years have shown the absence of advantages of wide-row sowings over row and narrow-row sowings in arid regions, and when using effective weed control measures they even yield to them.
On clean fertile soils, as well as with sufficient moisture, row or narrow-row sowing is more effective.
On infested soils and with moisture deficit, band wide-row sowing can be used: two-row 45x15x15 cm, 60x15x15 cm or single-row with inter-row spacings of 45 cm or 30 cm. Wide-row method is preferable when sowing for seeds.
Table. Proso millet yield with different sowing methods, c/ha.
| Zone | Row | Wide-row | Row | Band | Row | Narrow-row |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Non-Chernozem | 24.6 | 22.6 | 21.3 | 20.3 | 19.9 | 21.0 |
| Central Chernozem | 20.7 | 18.6 | 15.9 | 16.8 | — | — |
| Volga-Kama | 22.4 | 19.6 | 26.8 | 24.2 | 14.7 | 20.0 |
| Southeast | 20.5 | 19.2 | 17.3 | 16.5 | 14.7 | 14.6 |
| Siberian | 17.0 | 15.2 | 15.8 | 15.3 | 23.4 | 23.9 |
Note. Experiments were conducted in different years, therefore comparison of wide-row, band and narrow-row methods each time is with the row method.
Seeding rates
Seeding rates of proso millet seeds vary from 8 to 30 kg/ha. They increase when sowing from south to north of the country and from east to west, which is associated with precipitation and field germination of regions.
In the south, optimal plant density is achieved due to higher field germination and increased tillering. According to data of variety testing plots, field germination of seeds in northern regions varies from 20 to 47%, in the forest-steppe zone — 37–56%, in the steppe — up to 73%.
Recommended seeding rates for proso millet:
Steppe zone:
- wide-row sowing — 1.5–2 million/ha germinating seeds or 8–12 kg/ha;
- row sowing — 2–3 million/ha germinating seeds or 12–18 kg/ha;
Forest-steppe zone:
- wide-row sowing — 2–3 million/ha germinating seeds or 12–16 kg/ha;
- row sowing — 3–4 million/ha germinating seeds or 18–24 kg/ha;
Non-Chernozem zone:
- wide-row sowing — 2.5–4 million/ha germinating seeds or 14–18 kg/ha;
- row sowing — 4–5 million/ha germinating seeds or 24–30 kg/ha.
Recommended seeding rates are adjusted depending on local conditions. When sowing in dry soil, on infested fields, with danger of millet mosquito spread, with late sowing dates, when harrowing by seedlings, seeding rates are increased by 10–15%.
Seed sowing depth
Sowing depth of proso millet seeds is from 3 to 8 cm. It is reduced on heavy moist soils and with early sowing dates. On the contrary, it is increased on dry, light soils and late sowing dates.
In northern regions, optimal sowing depth is 3–4 cm, in southern — 4–5 cm. With moisture deficit and on light soils, sowing depth reaches 10 cm. Proso millet easily tolerates deep sowing (according to other data — poorly, Niklyaev V. S.). For example, at Samoilovsky state variety testing plot of Saratov oblast, the highest proso millet yield was obtained when sowing to a depth of 4–6 cm in a wet spring, whereas in dry springs — when sowing to a depth of 8–10 cm (average 26.8 c/ha).
Crop care
To increase field germination of seeds, obtain uniform seedlings, improve water and thermal regime of soil, fields are rolled after sowing with ring or ribbed rollers. Rolling is especially important when the upper soil layer dries out, as it promotes water inflow from lower layers, levels the soil surface and improves uniformity of seed placement. According to data of experimental stations, rolling increases yield by 5–7%, in some years up to 12%. In studies of N. F. Yakimenko, this technique after sowing increased soil moisture by 4% and gave an average yield increase over 4 years of 2.2 c/ha, whereas pre-sowing — 1.3 c/ha.
To prevent formation of soil crust, a combination of rolling and light harrowing is possible.
On row and narrow-row sowings, pre-emergence and post-emergence harrowing with tooth harrows is recommended during the hot part of the day, when plant turgor is most weakened.
After rains or irrigations, for development of nodal roots, light hilling after stem elongation is desirable. At Saratov and Bezenchuk experimental stations, hilling gave a yield increase of 2.1–2.3 c/ha.
During flowering of proso millet in the morning hours, artificial supplementary pollination is effective, primarily on seed plots.
On wide-row sowings, after emergence, inter-row loosening with share cultivators and top dressing are carried out. Top dressing is done with the second and third inter-row treatment. The first inter-row treatment is done to a depth of 4–5 cm after rows are marked. The second treatment is performed in the tillering phase to a depth of 6–8 cm. The third — 10–15 days after the second.
Herbicides
Weed control in proso millet sowings is crucial. For this, in the tillering phase, treatment with herbicides 2,4-D butyl ester, 43% emulsion concentrate at 0.7–1 kg/ha, is carried out. Sowings are also treated with 2M-4X (dicotex) at 1.3–1.5 kg/ha of 80% soluble powder.
Chemical weeding of proso millet sowings can be combined with foliar top dressing of plants with nitrogen fertilizers at 10–15 kg/ha. Top dressing increases the effectiveness of the herbicide and mitigates its negative effect on proso millet plants. For example, at Kursk Agricultural Experimental Station, use of herbicides increased yield by 1.8 c/ha, and in combination with mineral fertilizer — by 3.4 c/ha.
To improve adhesion of solution droplets to plant leaves, wetting agents are added to the herbicide solution, for example OP-7 or OP-10 in amount 0.25–0.5 kg/ha.
In modern farming conditions, greatest attention should be paid to agrotechnical methods of weed control: seed cleaning, observance of sowing dates, pre-sowing soil preparation, crop rotation, etc.
In proso millet sowings, herbicides are used:
- Agritox (500 g/l) — against annual dicotyledons; spraying in tillering phase before stem elongation;
- Bazagran (480 g/l), Bazagran M (250 + 125 g/l) — against annual dicotyledons, including those resistant to 2,4-D; spraying in tillering phase before stem elongation;
- Banvel (480 g/l) — against annual dicotyledons, including those resistant to 2,4-D, some perennial dicotyledons (thistle); used separately or in mixtures with 2,4-D, spraying in tillering phase, 2–4 leaves in annuals and 15 cm height in perennial weeds;
- Dialen (342 + 34.2 g/l) and Dialen Super (344 + 120 g/l) — annual dicotyledons, including those resistant to 2,4-D, as well as sow thistle species; spraying in tillering phase before stem elongation;
- Lontrel-300 (300 g/l) — against sow thistle, chamomile, knotweed species; spraying in tillering phase before stem elongation;
- Luvaram (610 g/l) — annual dicotyledons; spraying in tillering phase before stem elongation.
Pests and diseases
Common diseases of proso millet include: smut, melanosis, striped and dashed bacterioses. Sources of diseases can be infected seeds and weeds.
Pests of proso millet include: striped flea beetle, leafhoppers and thrips. In the steppe zone, millet mosquito, millet ground beetle are also widespread; with moistening — stem (corn) borer.
Harvesting
Proso millet ripens unevenly; by harvest time the stems remain juicy and green with moisture content 60–70%. First, seeds of the upper part of the panicle ripen. According to N. F. Yakimenko (1975), they have weight of 1000 grains 7 g and moisture 16–17%; at the same time in the panicle there were semi-ripe and green grains with weight of 1000 grains 4 g and moisture more than 45%. Seeds of the lower part of the panicle ripen after 10–12 days, while the upper ones already begin to shatter. With wind and rain, losses from shattering reach 5–6 c/ha. For this reason, for harvesting proso millet, mainly a two-phase harvesting method is used, which reduces losses from shattering and improves quality of grain and straw, besides increasing productivity of harvesting machines.
To establish optimal harvesting dates, it is desirable to regularly take samples. During analysis, the number of ripened grains, that is, having characteristic signs (color, hardness, luster), is checked. Use of the eosin method is also possible.
Two-phase harvesting is carried out over 3–4 days in the wax ripeness phase of grain. By this moment, 75–80% of grains should have ripened in the panicle. At the moment of completion of harvesting after 3–4 days, the number of ripened grains reaches 90–95%. Mowing is carried out with mounted headers, for example, ZhU-6, ZhVN-10, with rubberized belt pads fixed on the reel slats to soften impacts on panicles. Cutting height should be not less than 12–15 cm so that windrows can dry evenly.
Threshing is carried out with a combine with a pickup 3–5 days after mowing, when windrows are sufficiently dry. To reduce losses and damage to grain, the combine is additionally equipped and adjusted, the threshing drum speed is reduced to 500–600 rpm, otherwise grain is crushed and up to 5% is hulled. Straw and chaff after threshing are of high quality, so it is immediately stacked.
Single-phase method is used only in case of delayed harvesting, when grain ripening in the panicle reaches 100%, as well as on heavily thinned and low sowings.
In some cases, for example on seed sowings, double threshing is used. The method consists in threshing the mowed mass in a "soft" mode, as a result the most ripe and large seeds are separated. Unripe and small seeds remain in panicles on stems. When they leave the straw walker, they are laid in windrows for further drying. On the second pass of the combine, windrows are picked up and the dried seeds are threshed completely.
Features of cultivation under irrigation
Proso millet is very responsive to irrigation. According to data of Valuyskaya Experimental Reclamation Station (Volgograd oblast), under irrigation proso millet yield is 40–45 c/ha of grain, whereas without irrigation — 6–8 c/ha.
Under irrigation, weeds develop much more strongly than on dryland. Therefore, in these conditions special attention is paid to weed control. For this, two- and three-fold pre-sowing soil treatments are performed and herbicides are used.
Under irrigation conditions, effectiveness of fertilizers also significantly increases and the coefficient of moisture use increases. In the main fertilizer for proso millet, 30–40 t/ha of rotted manure or complete mineral fertilizer (N120P120K90) is applied, or they are applied together at half rate. Manure, part of phosphorus and potassium fertilizers are applied under autumn plowing, the rest of fertilizers — under pre-sowing treatment.
In crop rotations on irrigated lands, proso millet is better placed after row crops or on the layer of perennial grasses. Sowing date can be shifted by 5–10 days if additional treatment is needed to control weeds.
Sowing method is determined by irrigation method and field infestation. On clean soils, continuous row sowing gives higher yields than wide-row.
Seeding rate of proso millet under irrigation is increased by 0.5–1 million grains, sowing depth reduced to 3–4 cm.
With continuous sowing, care for proso millet consists of rolling, harrowing, herbicide treatments and top dressings. With wide-row sowing, 2–3 inter-row treatments are also carried out on the 3rd–4th day after irrigation.
Top dressings are carried out before the first and second irrigations. In the first top dressing, N35-45K40-50 is applied; in the second — N35-40.
In dry autumn, moisture-recharging irrigation is carried out at a rate of 800–1000 m3/ha of water; in dry spring — pre-sowing irrigation. Timing of vegetation irrigations is adjusted to critical periods of plant water requirement taking into account soil moisture. The first irrigation is done before the tillering phase, when 3–4 leaves form; the second — in the stem elongation phase; the third — in the critical period at heading. Sometimes a fourth irrigation is done — at the beginning of grain filling. Soil moisture to a depth of 60 cm should be not less than 70% of minimum water capacity. Irrigation rates along furrows are 500–600 m3/ha of water, with sprinkling — 300–400 m3/ha.
Water consumption coefficient is, depending on cultivation conditions and yield, about 65–90 m3/c of grain.
Total irrigation norm is 1500–2000 m3/ha of water. The most effective irrigation method is sprinkling. For this, sprinkler installations are used, for example, KDU-55M, DDN-45, "Volzhanka", "Fregat" or others.
Modern cultivation technologies
In modern proso millet cultivation technologies, in order to increase yield and cultivation efficiency, concentration of sowings, specialization of farms and improvement of specialist qualifications are of great importance.
The experience of applying progressive proso millet cultivation technologies in the USSR on the example of the "Rassvet" collective farm of Millerovsky district of Rostov oblast showed an annual increase in yield: in 1971–1975 — 19.2 c/ha on a sown area of 300 ha, in 1976–1980 — 26.9 c/ha on an area of 500 ha, in 1982 — 36.1 c/ha on an area of 570 ha. The increase in sown areas and specialized teams allowed obtaining a greater economic effect: labor costs for producing 1 c of grain were 0.91 person·h with cost price 5.31 rubles/c. Net income per 1 ha of sowing was 169 rubles with profitability 69%. In 1982, from selling grain the collective farm received 91 thousand rubles of net income.
Proso millet was placed after winter wheat following clean fallow. After stubble disking, 2–3 weeks later autumn plowing was carried out to a depth of 25–27 cm, then autumn harrowing and cultivation with leveling of the soil surface. Spring treatment included 1–2 harrowings and cultivations. Fertilizer — 50–60 t/ha of manure was applied under winter crops, in spring 100 kg of ammonium nitrate under harrowing, at sowing — 50–60 kg/ha of complex fertilizers in rows. For sowing, class I seeds were used, seeding rate 26–30 kg/ha. Variety Mironovsky 51. 1 month before sowing, seeds were treated with granosan — 1 kg/t, before sowing — with formalin 0.33 l/t. Sowings were rolled, in the 4–5 leaf phase treated with 2,4-D amine salt at 1.5–2 kg/ha using POU or OVT-1. Harvesting was carried out by two-phase method upon reaching 80–90% ripeness of grain in the panicle. Threshing was performed at reduced speeds — up to 350–400 rpm.
Varieties
Widely distributed are varieties bred by NIIKh of the Southeast and Veselopodolyanskaya Experimental Breeding Station.
Saratovskaya 853 (v. sanguineum Al.). The variety was bred by NIIKh of the Southeast; it occupies first place in sown area. Grain is dark red, large. Weight of 1000 grains is 6–7.5 g, hull content 17–19%, millet groat yield 72–81%. Quality of groats and porridge is high. Shattering is low. Mid-season (80–105 days), resistant to lodging, drought-resistant. Yield is high. Yield at Pospelikhinsky state variety testing plot of Altai krai was 43.3 c/ha. Released in the Southeast, North Caucasus, Siberia, Ukraine, Central Asia.
Veselopodolyanskoe 375 (v. aureum Al.). The variety was bred by Veselopodolyanskaya Experimental Breeding Station. Grain is light cream, spherical, large. Weight of 1000 grains from 7 to 8.5 g, thin-hulled (12–17%), millet groat yield 83–85%, shattering low. Resistant to lodging. Late-ripening (90–117 days). Drought resistance average. Responsive to irrigation. Yield high. Released in the Central Chernozem zone, Ukraine, Moldova, Georgia.
Mironovskaya 51 (v. aureum Al.). The variety was bred by Mironovsky SRI of Breeding and Seed Production of wheat. It occupies second place in sown areas. Grain is bright yellow, large, uniformity 80–95%. Weight of 1000 grains is 6–7 g, groat yield 77–80%, quality excellent. Mid-late (99–114 days). Plastic, drought-resistant, highly productive. In grain yield it surpasses previously released varieties by 2–7 c/ha. Released in the Central Chernozem zone, North Caucasus, Ukraine and Moldova.
Kazanskoe 506 (v. flavum Korn). The variety was bred by Tatar Agricultural Experimental Station. Early-ripening, grain golden yellow, weight of 1000 grains from 5.5 to 6.5 g. Millet groat yield 76–79%. Cold-resistant, resistant to lodging. Yield high — 4.0–4.9 t/ha. Released in the Trans-Urals, Eastern Siberia, Kaluga and Kirov oblasts.
Omskoe 10 (v. vitellenum Popov). The variety was bred by SibSRI Agriculture. Grain golden yellow, thick-hulled. Millet groat yield 74–76%. Early-ripening, high-yielding. Released in northern regions of proso millet cultivation, mainly in oblasts of Western and Eastern Siberia, Buryatia.
List of sources
- Vavilov P. P., Gritsenko V. V., Kuznetsov V. S. et al. (1986). Plant Production. Ed. by Vavilov P. P. 5th ed., revised and enlarged. Moscow: Agropromizdat.
- Kolomeichenko V. V. (2007). Plant Production/Textbook. Moscow: Agrobiznescentr.
- Niklyaev V. S. (2000). Fundamentals of Agricultural Production Technology. Farming and Plant Production. Moscow: "Bylina".
