Oats

Last updated: June 22, 2025

Oats — grain crop, belongs to spring cereals of group I.

Economic importance

Oat grain contains on average 10-13% protein, 40-45% starch, 4.5-6.0% fat. Thanks to these indicators, oats have food and feed importance. Oat grain is an indispensable concentrated feed for horses and young stock of other animal species, and poultry. Oats as feed help increase egg production of hens and increase milk yields. The nutritional value of 1 kg of average-quality oat grain is taken as 1 feed unit.

From it are produced groats, rolled oats, oatmeal flour, biscuits, and coffee. Due to the good digestibility of proteins, fat, starch and vitamins, oat products are important in dietary and infant nutrition. The grain is rich in vitamins (B₁, B₂) and trace elements (cobalt, zinc, manganese).

Oat groats, due to their high calcium and phosphorus content, surpass millet and buckwheat groats in nutritional value. Oat flour is not used for bread baking because of the low quality of gluten, but it is used for making cookies.

Oat straw and chaff are used for animal feed; in nutritional value they surpass the straw and chaff of other grain crops. Straw contains 3.9% protein, 1.9% fat, 33.9% fiber and 38.5% nitrogen-free extractives. Vetch-oat mixture is the best crop for sowing in occupied fallow. Under conditions of sufficient moisture, in mixture with grain legumes, for example, vetch, grass pea, peas, it serves to obtain green mass, hay, and haylage.

History

Oats are among the ancient agricultural crops. According to N. I. Vavilov, oats were domesticated later than wheat and barley.

Initially it occurred as a contaminant of wheat and barley crops. As these crops moved north and into the mountains, oats, due to their hardiness to growing conditions, displaced them and entered cultivation.

In Europe, oats were known from 1500-1700 BCE. In Ancient Greece, the first mentions of it date to the 6th century BCE. In Russia, it began to be cultivated in the northwestern regions of the Non-Chernozem zone from the 7th century CE.

Areas of cultivation and yield

The world sown area of oats among grain crops occupied seventh place in the 1980s, or 26.3 million ha; in 1997 — 20 million ha.

In the USSR in 1982, the sown area was 11.5 million ha. At the end of the last century, world sown areas decreased to 16 million ha, or 2.3% of the total area of grain crops. Gross harvest — 30 million t with an average yield of 1.9 t/ha.

This crop is cultivated in Western European countries, the USA and Canada. In Europe, crops are distributed from Norway (69° N) to southern France.

In 1997, the sown area of oats in Russia was 6.4 million ha with a yield of 1.46 t/ha. In 2001-2005 — 4 million ha, or 9.1% of the entire area under grain crops. Gross harvest in 2001-2005 — 6 million t (7.4% of total grain production) with an average yield of 1.65 t/ha.

In Russia, the main sown areas are located in regions with sufficient moisture, especially in Kirov, Perm, Chelyabinsk, Tula, Ryazan, Novosibirsk, Omsk oblasts, Bashkiria, Tatarstan, Altai and Krasnoyarsk krais. In addition, oats occupy large areas in Belarus, Lithuania, northern Kazakhstan, in Polesia and the Forest-Steppe of Ukraine.

In Russia, oat crops are located up to the Arctic Circle, somewhat below the barley boundary; in Siberia the boundaries sometimes coincide.

The maximum grain yield of oats, for example, in Kaluga oblast is 5.5 t/ha, in Moscow oblast — 4.9 t/ha, in Penza oblast — 4.3 t/ha, in Kemerovo oblast — 7.6 t/ha.

Botanical description

Plants of the genus Avena L. have a spreading or contracted panicle, 2-3-flowered or many-flowered spikelets. Glumes are membranous, as a rule, longer than or equal to the lemmas. Awned forms mainly have awns geniculate-bent and twisted in the lower knee, arising not from the apex but from the back of the lemma. The caryopsis is covered over its entire surface with soft appressed hairs.

The 1000-seed weight is 27-46 g, grain hullness — 22-30%. The grain is elongated, narrowed, pointed toward the apex, with a tuft and groove, softly hairy on the surface. The color of hulled forms is white, yellow, brown; of naked forms — light yellow. Self-pollinating crop.

The root system is fibrous and well developed. The stem is a hollow culm, 70-100 cm high. The ligule is well developed, dentate along the upper edge. Auricles are absent.

Oats are represented by more than 70 species, among which there are perennial and annual, cultivated and wild forms; only 11 species have practical importance.

In Russia, two species are cultivated: common oat (Avena sativa L.) and Byzantine oat (Avena byzantina C. Koch.). Also growing are sand oat (Avena strigosa Schreb.) and wild oats (Avena fatua L., Avena sterilis), which are weeds in crops of grains and other field crops.

Common wild oat

Common wild oat, or poletay (Avena fatua L.), is distributed in northern regions, therefore it is called northern wild oat; Ludovician wild oat (Avena sterilis older Avena ludoviciana) — in southern regions and is called southern wild oat.

Unlike cultivated oats, wild oats (Avena spp.) are distinguished by the presence at the base of the grain of special articulations — a horseshoe, formed as a result of outgrowth and thickening of the base of the lower lemma. Cultivated oats do not have this horseshoe. It causes shattering of wild oat seeds even in the green state. Common wild oat has a horseshoe on each grain in the spikelet; southern wild oat — only on the lower one. The lemma of wild oats is covered with dense hairs with a coarse developed awn, which can twist and untwist depending on humidity, thereby promoting burial of seeds into the soil.

Common cultivated oat

Common cultivated oat differs from Byzantine oat in that the spikelet disarticulates during threshing. In cultivated oat, the second grain breaks off at the top of its rachilla, which remains attached to the lower grain. The fracture surface of the lower grain is straight. There is one awn in the spikelet or none. Almost all varieties cultivated in Russia and the countries of the former USSR belong to this species.

The rachilla of the second grain in Byzantine oat breaks at the bottom or in the middle and remains partly with the upper grain, partly with the lower. The fracture surface of the lower grain is somewhat slanted.

Sand oat

Unlike the first two species, sand oat is characterized by long awn-like outgrowths (strigae) on the apex of the outer lemma. The lower flower in the spikelet sits on a pedicel; spikelets are provided with two coarse geniculate-bent awns. This oat species grows on light sandy soils, therefore it is called sand oat. In Russia it is recognized as a weed.

Varieties

Common cultivated oats are represented by hulled and naked forms. Hulled forms occupy the largest areas; naked forms are distributed insignificantly due to lower yield. Spikelets of naked forms are large, many-flowered (more than five flowers); lemmas and glumes are membranous (soft). In hulled oats, lemmas are harder, leathery. The grain of naked oats easily falls out of the lemmas during threshing. They are more demanding for moisture than hulled forms.

According to panicle structure, common oat is divided into spreading (diffusae Mordv.) and contracted, or one-sided (orientalis Mordv.). The most widespread is oat with a spreading panicle, whose branches are directed in different directions. In one-sided forms, the panicle is one-sided with shortened branches pressed to the panicle axis.

Depending on panicle type, color of lemmas (grain) and presence of awns, oats are divided into varieties.

In Russia, cultivated varieties belong to: mutica Al., aurea Korn, aristata Kr. The most widespread is white-grained oat, distinguished by large grain and coarse straw. The grain of yellow-grained oat is smaller, with a smaller proportion of hulls. It differs from white-grained by a higher content of fats and vitamins, and is more drought-resistant. Gray-grained oats (varieties grisea Korn and cinerea Korn) are mainly wintering, cultivated in southern Europe, in Russia — in the foothills of Crimea. Brown oats (varieties brunnea Korn and montana Al.) are of interest for cultivation on drained bogs of the Non-Chernozem zone. One-sided varieties are distinguished by late ripeness and resistance to loose smut, ripen more evenly, and shatter less.

Naked oats are represented by two widespread varieties with a spreading panicle and white lemmas: awnless (inermis Korn) and awned (chinensis Fisch).

Biological features

Temperature requirements

Oats belong to plants of the temperate climate. Seed germination temperature is +1…+2 °C. The optimal temperature during emergence and tillering is +15…+18 °C. Seedlings tolerate short spring frosts of -3…-9 °C. As plants develop, resistance to low temperatures decreases: during flowering, frosts below -2 °C are destructive. By the grain filling phase, sensitivity to cold somewhat recovers; the grain tolerates frosts down to -4…-5 °C.

The sum of active temperatures per growing season for early-ripening varieties is 1000-1500 °C, for mid-ripening — 1350-1650 °C, for late-ripening — 1500-1800 °C.

As a result of rapid root system development, plants suffer less from spring droughts than spring wheat and barley. On the contrary, it is less resistant to high temperatures and summer atmospheric droughts. At a temperature of 38-40 °C and dry air, stomatal paralysis occurs after 4-5 h.

Moisture requirements

Oats belong to moisture-loving plants. Hulled grain requires more water for swelling than grain of naked varieties; it absorbs 60-65% of water by grain mass, whereas barley — 50%, wheat — 45%. According to data of RIA of the Southeast, the transpiration coefficient is 474; according to other data — 400-665.

The critical period of moisture consumption is from stem elongation to heading. A soil moisture deficit 10-15 days before heading is especially destructive, leading to a sharp decrease in yield. Oats give the highest yields in years with sufficient precipitation in the first half of summer. Rainy weather in the second half of summer in northern regions leads to the formation of secondary tillering (growth of new shoots from the tillering node) and prolongs the growing season, so that oats do not have time to ripen before frost.

Soil requirements

Oats are less demanding to soil than other early spring grain crops due to a developed root system with high absorptive capacity. Oat roots penetrate to a depth of up to 120 cm and spread in width up to 80 cm. The root system has the ability to extract nutrients from hard-to-access compounds.

Oats can grow on sandy loam, loamy, clay, and peat soils. Cohesive soils with a high nutrient content, including in poorly soluble form, are suitable for it. Of all grain crops, it does well on acidic soils with pH 5-6 and on drained peatlands. Therefore, in the Non-Chernozem zone it can be the first crop after breaking virgin land or forest clearings.

Oats respond well to liming of acidic sod-podzolic soils. Solonetz soils are poorly suitable.

Light requirements

Long-day crop. Shade-tolerant.

Vegetation

Vegetation phases:

emergence;
tillering;
stem elongation;
heading;
grain ripening.

Growing season — 75-120 days.

Formation of nodal roots begins 7-10 days after emergence. Even after a dry spring, if there are rains in June, plants are able to continue tillering and form nodal roots during summer.

Tilling intensity is lower than in barley. Total tillering — 3-4 shoots, productive — 1.5-2.

Crop rotation

Good preceding crops for oats are row crops and grain legumes. Since oats are demanding for nitrogen, leguminous plants are good preceding crops for them. The increase in grain yield of oats sown after peas is at least 2-3 c/ha.

Oats give good results when placed after winter crops sown on fertilized fallows. In the Non-Chernozem zone, valuable preceding crops are potatoes and fiber flax.

In Siberia, the Urals, and the Far East, preceding crops for oats are often spring wheat following fallow or perennial grasses, barley, and row crops.

Oats are not recommended to be sown after sugar beet, as this leads to the spread of a pest common to these crops — nematode. It tolerates repeated sowings two years in a row poorly.

Due to low sensitivity to soil acidity, in the Non-Chernozem zone it is usually sown as the first crop when developing bog soils.

Fertilizer system

For the formation of 1 t of grain and the corresponding amount of straw, oats use 25-29 kg nitrogen, 7-14 kg phosphorus, 18-33 kg potassium.

Organic and mineral fertilizers, especially nitrogen, give good results when applied under oats. It uses the aftereffect of manure and composts, giving a yield increase of more than 4 c/ha. When sowing oats on newly developed lands or when undersowing clover, nitrogen and phosphorus-potassium fertilizers are applied, which increase oat yield and promote growth of clover.

On old arable lands, application of complete mineral fertilizer is effective. Good increases are obtained from the application of phosphorus fertilizers in granular form. In experiments of the plant growing laboratory of MAA named after K. A. Timiryazev, application of granular superphosphate increased yield by 3.5 c/ha compared with simple superphosphate in the same amounts. An even greater effect is obtained when applying granular superphosphate in rows at a dose of 10-50 kg/ha.

Table. Efficiency of fertilizers for oats on various soils (VNIIUA).

Soils	Yield without fertilizer application, c/ha	Yield increase with application, c/ha
Soils	Yield without fertilizer application, c/ha	NK	NP	PK	NPK
Podzolic sandy loam	10,8	4,9	5,6	1,4	8,4
Podzolic loamy	12,3	4,1	5,4	2,6	7,6
Gray forest	14,8	5,8	6,6	1,0	7,5
Podzolized and leached chernozems	16,3	5,1	7,4	1,5	9,1
Thick and ordinary chernozems	18,8	3,1	4,7	2,3	5,5

From the data presented it follows that oats are responsive primarily to nitrogen fertilizers on all soil types. In the Non-Chernozem zone it makes good use of the aftereffect of manure; in the Chernozem zone — of complete mineral fertilizer.

Potassium consumption during the growing season occurs approximately evenly. Maximum nitrogen consumption occurs in the tillering — stem elongation phases, phosphorus — in the initial growth periods.

Fertilizer application rates are established taking into account nutrient content in the soil, utilization coefficients and planned yield. Approximate rates of mineral fertilizer application for oats — N_40-60P_60-90K_50-60.

When growing on drained peatlands, copper micronutrients are of great importance. According to experiments of the Institute of Soil Science and Agriculture of the Academy of Sciences of Latvia (Latvian SSR), application of pyrite cinders on sod-gley soils of coastal regions increased oat grain yield by 4-9 c/ha.

When using calculation methods for determining fertilizer rates, with nitrogen consumption of 25-26 kg per 1 t of grain, a correction coefficient of 0.6 is established for the Non-Chernozem zone, and 0.7-0.8 for other regions. With high content of mobile phosphorus and exchangeable potassium, correction coefficients are 0.5 and 0.6, respectively.

Phosphorus-potassium fertilizers are applied in autumn for the main cultivation, or in spring simultaneously with nitrogen fertilizers for pre-sowing soil treatment.

Nitrogen fertilizer top dressing is also used in the stem elongation phase at N40, taking into account the results of plant diagnostics.

Soil treatment system

Oats, like other grain crops, respond to early autumn plowing. According to data of the Voronezh Agricultural Institute, early autumn plowing increases oat yield by 3 c/ha compared with late autumn plowing.

When oats are placed after row crops that received good care, autumn plowing is not needed. Over winter, soil after potatoes usually becomes strongly compacted, so in spring treatment begins with deep cultivation with simultaneous harrowing.

In areas of insufficient moisture, snow retention is carried out, and in spring retention of meltwater. For this, during snowmelt, snow ridges are made across the slope.

In the Non-Chernozem zone on heavy soils, deep pre-sowing loosening up to 10-12 cm is carried out with cultivators; in some cases spring plowing with moldboards removed to a depth of 12-16 cm with simultaneous harrowing is more advisable.

To carry out sowing at optimal times, pre-sowing treatment is done in a short time. Rolling after deep loosening helps reduce moisture losses to evaporation and levels the soil surface. After rolling, light harrowing is carried out.

Sowing

Seed preparation

A feature of preparing oat seeds for sowing is their separation into two groups of grains differing in shape and size. The first, lower grains in the spikelet are heavier, form earlier and ripen better. The second, upper ones, are smaller. From the first grains, plants develop more vigorous, tiller better and give a larger yield. To separate the upper grains, ordinary oat triers or more complex machines OS-4.5A are used.

For sowing, it is recommended to use seeds with a 1000-seed weight of 30-35 g and growth strength of at least 80%.

To increase germination energy and seed germination, primarily in the regions of Siberia, the Urals and the Non-Chernozem zone, where the weather is wet during ripening and harvesting, seeds are subjected to air-thermal treatment. In a cold and wet spring, heating is carried out in grain dryers at a temperature of 35-40 °C.

Against loose smut, oat seeds before sowing are treated with 40% aqueous formalin solution 0.38 l/t no earlier than 3-5 days before sowing.

To increase treatment efficiency, stickers are used, for example, NaCMC.

Pre-sowing treatment of oat seeds also includes treatment with micronutrients. Application rates: boron — 100 g/t seeds, zinc — 120 g/t seeds, manganese — 180 g/t seeds, copper — 300 g/t seeds.

For seed treatment against diseases, the following are used:

loose smut — Dividend Star (30 g/l difenoconazole + 6.3 g/l cyproconazole), Agat-25K (titer 50-80 billion before inactivation), Premis Dvesti (200 g/l triticonazole), Vincit Forte (37.5 g/l flutriafol + 25 g/l thiabendazole + 15 g/l flutriafol);
covered smut — Premis Dvesti (200 g/l triticonazole), Vincit Forte (37.5 g/l flutriafol + 25 g/l thiabendazole + 15 g/l flutriafol);
hard (stone) smut — Colfugo Duplet (200 g/l carbendazim + 170 g/l carboxin), Agat-25K (titer 50-80 billion before inactivation);
stem smut — Colfugo Duplet (200 g/l carbendazim + 170 g/l carboxin);
Helminthosporium root rot — Agat-25K (titer 50-80 billion before inactivation);
Fusarium root rot — Colfugo Duplet (200 g/l carbendazim + 170 g/l carboxin), Agat-25K (titer 50-80 billion before inactivation);
seed molding — Dividend Star (30 g/l difenoconazole + 6.3 g/l cyproconazole), Premis Dvesti (200 g/l triticonazole), Vitaros (198 g/kg carboxin + 198 g/l thiram);
root rots — Colfugo Duplet (200 g/l carbendazim + 170 g/l carboxin);
red-brown spot — Dividend Star (30 g/l difenoconazole + 6.3 g/l cyproconazole).

Sowing dates

The earliest sowing dates are optimal when the soil reaches physical maturity. However, some delay in sowing does not lead to such a sharp decrease in yield as in spring wheat and barley. This is explained by the relatively easy adaptability of oats to environmental conditions, rapid formation of secondary roots, and less damage by Swedish and Hessian flies.

Early sowings are significantly less affected by rust, especially in moist regions, but they do not everywhere give the best results. In Eastern Siberia, in the steppe and forest-steppe regions of Western Siberia, the Trans-Urals and northern Kazakhstan, the earliest sowing dates often lead to zakuklivanie (a viral disease). Diseased plants tiller strongly and almost do not form panicles; the disease is especially severe in a wet summer. The vector of the disease is the dark leafhopper.

In addition, sowing oats in the Urals and Western Siberia at the end of May allows more effective use of summer precipitation.

Therefore, one of the agronomic methods of combating zakuklivanie is medium sowing dates, that is, in the second half of May, as well as sowing with healthy seeds with high germination energy; higher sowing density through the use of narrow-row or cross sowing; application of physiologically acidic forms of phosphorus fertilizers; avoidance of repeated sowings.

Sowing methods

Narrow-row and cross sowing methods are optimal for oats. The sowing rate with these methods is increased by 10-20% compared with conventional. Conventional row sowing is also used, which allows leaving technological tramlines for crop care.

Sowing rates

Recommended sowing rates for oats:

Non-Chernozem zone — (5.5) 6.0-7.0 million/ha germinating seeds, or 200-250 kg/ha;
Central Chernozem zone — (4.5) 5.0-5.5 million/ha germinating seeds, or 150-170 kg/ha;
Southeast — 3.5-4.0 million/ha germinating seeds or 110-130 kg/ha;
southern steppe zone — 4.0-5.5 million/ha germinating seeds, or 130-170 kg/ha;
Eastern Siberia — 6-7 million/ha germinating seeds;
Siberia and Far East — (4.5) 5.5-6.5 million/ha germinating seeds or (150) 160-200 kg/ha;
North Caucasus and Ukraine — 4.0-5.5 million/ha germinating seeds or 130-170 kg/ha.

Recommended rates are adjusted depending on moisture (in arid conditions they are reduced), soil weediness, and sowing methods. The sowing rate can be reduced with sufficient field fertilization.

Seed sowing depth

Seed sowing depth for oats depends on the cultivation region, soil character and sowing dates. In northern regions on heavy soils it does not exceed 3 cm, on drained bogs — 2-3 cm. In semi-arid regions on chernozem soils — 4-5 cm, with strong drying of the topsoil — 5-6 cm.

Crop care

With insufficient moisture in the upper soil layers, post-sowing rolling is effective. At the Tambov Agricultural Experimental Station, on average over 5 years, rolling with ring rollers increased oat yield by 1.5 c/ha.

On heavy soils and in a wet spring, pre-emergence harrowing is carried out with needle or tooth harrows, when root length is no more than grain length. Harrowing allows breaking the soil crust and loosens the soil, which promotes better aeration of the upper root-inhabited layer and creates favorable conditions for uniform emergence. Harrowing after emergence is carried out only after good rooting of plants in the tillering phase with light, medium harrows or rotary hoes. Pre-emergence and post-emergence harrowing in the tillering phase is an effective agronomic method of weed control.

On fields of the plant growing laboratory of MAA named after K. A. Timiryazev, harrowing crops in one pass in the tillering phase, on average over 3 years, increased oat yield from 33.3 to 38.2 c/ha. At the same time, weed infestation decreased by 12%. Soil moisture after harrowing was 2-2.5% higher than on untreated plots.

Harrowing across rows in the tillering phase promotes better plant development, increases productive tillering and the number of spikelets in the panicle.

With slight weed infestation of crops, preference is given to agronomic methods of weed control. When infestation with thistle is more than 2 plants per 1 m² or 15 plants of other weeds per 1 m², herbicides are used.

Characteristic diseases of oats include: loose smut, crown rust, red-brown spot, and root rot.

Characteristic pests of oats include: Swedish fly, stem flea beetles, cereal leaf beetle, cereal aphids, and oat thrips.

Plant protection

To control brown rust, powdery mildew, rhynchosporium and Helminthosporium leaf spot, the preparation Alto (400 g/l cyproconazole) is used. Against crown rust and red-brown spot, the preparations Bayleton (250 g/kg) and Tilt (250 g/l propiconazole) are used.

To control bugs in oat crops, the preparation Fastac (100 g/l) is used; against aphids and thrips — the preparations Rogor-S (400 g/l) and Fufanon (570 g/l); against cereal leaf beetle and cereal flies — Rogor-S (400 g/l).

Approved herbicides for weed control in oat crops:

Agritox (500 g/l) — against annual dicotyledons; spraying in the tillering phase before stem elongation;
Agroxon (750 g/l) — annual dicotyledons; spraying in the tillering phase before stem elongation;
Bazagran (480 g/l), Bazagran M (250 + 125 g/l) — against annual dicotyledons, including those resistant to 2,4-D; spraying in the tillering phase before stem elongation;
Banvel (480 g/l) — against annual dicotyledons, including those resistant to 2,4-D, some perennial dicotyledons (thistle); used alone or in mixtures with 2,4-D, spraying in the tillering phase, 2-4 leaves in annuals and 15 cm height in perennial weeds;
Granstar (750 g/kg) — annual dicotyledons, including those resistant to 2,4-D, field thistle; spraying in the tillering phase;
Dialen (342 + 34.2 g/l) and Dialen Super (344 + 120 g/l) — annual dicotyledons, including those resistant to 2,4-D, as well as sow thistle species; spraying in the tillering phase before stem elongation;
Difezan (344 + 18.8 g/l), Kortes (750 g/kg) — annual dicotyledons, including those resistant to 2,4-D, some perennial dicotyledons; spraying in the tillering phase;
Laren (600 g/kg), Sekator (125 + 50 + 125 g/kg) — annual dicotyledons, including those resistant to 2,4-D and 2M-4X, some perennial dicotyledons; spraying in the tillering phase at 2-4 leaves in annual weeds or in the rosette phase in perennials;
Lontrel-300 (300 g/l) — against sow thistle, chamomile, knotweed species; spraying in the tillering phase before stem elongation;
Luvaram (610 g/l) — annual dicotyledons; spraying in the tillering phase before stem elongation.

Harvesting

Oat ripening is uneven, especially with strong secondary tillering. Grain ripening in spikelets occurs earlier in the upper part of the panicle. Ripening in the lower tiers lags significantly. Oats, unlike wheat and barley, ripen poorly in swaths, so too early harvesting yields a lot of green grain.

Two-phase or separate harvesting of oats begins at the end of wax ripeness of grain in the upper part of the panicles, where the largest grain is located. Harvesting in the full ripeness phase leads to large losses of large grain.

On clean fields and with uniform ripening, harvesting is carried out by a single-phase method.

Varieties of spring oats

Lgovsky 1026 (v. mutica). The variety was developed by the Lgovsky Experimental Breeding Station of the ARRI of Sugar Beet (ARISB). Mid-late, drought-resistant, lodging-resistant. Slightly affected by loose smut and crown rust. Zoned in the Non-Chernozem, Central Chernozem zones, the Volga region, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan.

Gorizont (v. mutica). The variety was developed by the Lgovsky Experimental Breeding Station of ARISB. Mid-season, lodging-resistant. Slightly affected by crown rust. Resistant to smut. Zoned in Voronezh, Lipetsk and Tula oblasts.

Astor (v. mutica). The variety was introduced from Holland. Mid-season, high-yielding, lodging-resistant. Resistance to crown rust is medium. Zoned in the Non-Chernozem zone, the Volga region, Western Siberia, Ukraine, and Kyrgyzstan.

Narymsky 943 (v. mutica). The variety was developed by the Narym Breeding Station. Medium vigor. Drought resistance is medium. Resistant to lodging, shattering and loose smut. Zoned in Western and Eastern Siberia and the Far East.

List of sources

Vavilov P. P., Gritsenko V. V., Kuznetsov V. S. et al. (1986). Plant Growing. Ed. by Vavilov P. P. 5th ed., revised and enlarged. Moscow: Agropromizdat.
Kolomeychenko V. V. (2007). Plant Growing/Textbook. Moscow: Agrobiznescentr.
Niklyaev V. S. (2000). Fundamentals of Agricultural Production Technology. Agriculture and Plant Growing. Moscow: Bylina.