Rye

Last updated: June 22, 2025

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Winter rye under snow.

Winter rye (Secale cereale L.) belongs to winter cereals of group I and is one of the most important grain crops in Russia.

Spring rye, or yaritsa, is a grain crop belonging to spring cereals of group I.

Economic importance

For areas of the Non-Chernozem zone, winter rye is the main crop. Various types of bread are made from rye flour; they differ in caloric content and have good specific taste qualities, contain complete proteins and vitamins (A, B₁, B₂, PP, and E).

The protein content in rye grain ranges from 9.2 to 19%, depending on growing conditions and variety. In digestibility it is inferior to wheat protein, but superior in biological value. The content of lysine, threonine, and tyrosine in rye protein is higher than in wheat protein. Rye grain with the highest protein content is obtained in eastern Russia.

Whole and crushed grain, bran, and flour are used as concentrated feed for animals. 1 kg of grain is equivalent to 1.18 feed units. Rye straw in steamed form is a roughage that can be used in ensiling succulent plants, for livestock bedding, for making mats and paper (in countries where wood is scarce). 1 kg of straw equals 0.21 feed units. Cellulose, furfural, acetic acid, and lignin are obtained from straw. In ground form it serves as organic fertilizer.

In some regions of Russia, fodder varieties of winter rye are sown to obtain early green fodder. In this case, in spring it regrows early and gives a good yield of green mass, especially in a mixture with winter vetch (hairy vetch). Thanks to early harvesting, it remains possible to obtain an additional harvest of after-harvest crops, for example, maize, millet, buckwheat, potato.

Strong tillering and rapid growth of winter rye are a good way to suppress weeds. Winter rye for green fodder can serve as a good preceding crop for winter wheat; rye for grain — for row and spring crops. After harvesting winter rye, in some zones enough time remains for cultivating cold-resistant intermediate crops, for example, the Brassicaceae family, for fodder or for green manure.

History of the crop

According to N. I. Vavilov, rye originated from wild species in Southwestern Asia in a weed-field form and was then domesticated.

Rye was introduced into cultivation later than wheat, barley, and other grain crops. The first mentions of rye are found in the Roman writer Pliny (1st century BC). In the 3rd and 4th centuries, Slavic tribes sowed rye in southern regions, for example, on the Kerch Peninsula. From there it gradually spread across the territory of the European part of Russia. Brief information about the cultivation of winter rye was written in Nestor’s chronicle (1056–1115). This crop reached Siberia in the 17th century together with Russian settlers.

In cultivation, mainly winter rye is widespread. Spring rye, or “yaritsa,” is less productive and is cultivated on small areas.

Cultivation regions and yield

In 1982, according to FAO data, winter rye accounted for 29.9 million t, or 4.1%, of world grain production. The sown area in the world was 17.6 million ha, of which 9.8 million ha were in the USSR. In the 1990s, the sown area of winter rye in the world was 11 million ha (1.6% of the total grain area), in Russia — 4 million ha. The gross harvest in the world was 23 million t, or 1.1% of total grain production, with an average yield of 2.1 t/ha.

For the period 2001–2005, the sown area of winter rye in Russia was 2.9 million ha, or 6.4% of the total sown area of grain crops. The gross harvest was 5.2 million t, or 6.6% of the total for grain crops.

Winter rye is cultivated in many European countries, for example, Germany, Poland, France, and also in the USA. On the territory of the former USSR, winter rye crops are widespread from forest-tundra to southern regions of Ukraine, from western oblasts of Belarus to the Transbaikal part of Eastern Siberia. In the Non-Chernozem zone, with favorable natural conditions for cultivating winter rye, over 80% of sown areas are concentrated; in the Central Chernozem zone, in the Southeast, and in northern oblasts of Ukraine — approximately 15%. In the remaining oblasts of Ukraine and the North Caucasus, winter rye gives way to winter wheat. In the south, small areas exist in high-mountain regions. In the steppe regions of Western and Eastern Siberia, rye usually gives lower yields than spring wheat following fallow.

Winter rye is among the crops with high productivity, although in yield it is inferior to winter wheat, primarily its new varieties.

In 1976–1980, the average yield of winter rye was 14.1 dt/ha, whereas that of winter wheat was 24.3 dt/ha. This is mainly explained by the fact that winter rye is usually placed on poorer lands after poor preceding crops, and also receives little fertilizer. A high level of agricultural technology makes it possible to obtain high yields of winter rye.

Advanced production experience and results of scientific research show that, with observance of cultivation technology, winter rye can have a yield of more than 40 dt/ha. Thus, on the “Borets” state farm in Moscow Oblast in 1982, the yield was 50.8 dt/ha; on the Kirov collective farm in Bashkir Oblast — 39 dt/ha; on the “Rodina” collective farm in Vologda Oblast — 38.7 dt/ha.

Long-term data from crop variety testing show that yield at variety trial plots reaches 50–70 dt/ha. For example, at the Pokruisky variety trial plot (Lithuania), a yield of 82.3 dt/ha was obtained; at the Volkovsky variety trial plot in Grodno Oblast (Belarus) — 66.1 dt/ha; at the Balevsky variety trial plot in Tula Oblast — 57 dt/ha.

The average yield in 1997 was 1.87 t/ha.

The leading world producers of winter rye are Russia, Germany, Poland, France, and the USA.

Spring rye is cultivated on small areas in regions of Eastern Siberia characterized by severe autumn droughts and harsh winters, for example, in Yakutia and Transbaikalia. It is inferior to winter rye in yield level and stability. It is undemanding to soil and climatic conditions and grows well on light sandy loam, strongly podzolized and acidic soils, as well as on drained peatlands.

Varieties of winter rye

According to the classification proposed by V. D. Kobylyansky, the genus rye Secale L. is represented by four species divided into two sections.

The first section (cplismenolepis Nevski) — dense closed-glume — unites wild species: wild rye (Secale sylvestre Host), Iranian rye (Secale iranicum KobyI), and mountain rye (Secale strictum, syn. Secale montanum (Guss)). Within this species, subspecies were distinguished — montanum (Typus), Kuprijanovii (Grossh), anatolicum (Boiss), africanum (Stapf).

The second section (Secale) has one species — cultivated rye (Secale cereale L.), which includes all forms of cultivated and weed-field rye, annual and perennial rye, and cultivated forms of diploid and tetraploid rye. The species has five subspecies: grain rye (Secale L.); Vavilov rye (vavilovii (Grossh) Kobyl); tetraploid rye (tetraploidum Kobyl); Derzhavin rye (derzhavinii (Fzvel) Kobyl); Tsitsin rye (tsitsinii Kobyl).

Each subspecies is represented by varieties differing in ear shape (typical rye, branched-lobed, blackberry, wheat-like), ear color (white, red, brown, black), grain position in glumes (open or closed), and pubescence of outer floral glumes (glabrous, pubescent).

Of all varieties, common rye (var. vulgare Korn) is most important, a variety with a typical rye white ear, open or semi-open grain, and glabrous outer floral glume. The rachis is non-brittle. All cultivated varieties belong to it. In the USSR, more than 50 varieties were released.

Morphological features

Cultivated rye (Secale cereale L.) has a fibrous root system penetrating the soil to a depth of up to 1.5 m; it is more powerful than that of wheat.

The stem is a hollow culm up to 1–1.5 m high, with 5–7 internodes. Leaves are linear, wider than in wheat. The ligule is short, rounded at the top. Auricles are short without cilia.

The inflorescence is an ear, including a rachis, on whose ledges are located one two-flowered (rarely three-flowered) spikelet. Awns are serrated.

The grain is naked, elongated, narrowed toward the embryo, with a deep groove and tuft. The grain has a greenish, yellow, light brown, or gray color. The 1000-grain weight is from 28 to 40 g.

A feature of winter rye is strong tillering in autumn, with formation of up to 4–5 stems, and rapid spring regrowth. It is a cross-pollinated (wind-pollinated) plant. It ripens 8–10 days earlier than winter wheat.

Biological features

Temperature requirements

Winter rye seeds begin to germinate at 1–2°C; at temperatures above 30°C germination stops. The optimum temperature for emergence is 6–12°C. At 12–15°C and optimal moisture, seedlings emerge after 4–5 days.

The sum of effective temperatures for germination is 50°C, and for the period from emergence to tillering — 67°C. Rye begins to tiller well at 10–12°C, and at 4–5°C tillering and growth stop.

Among winter grain crops, it is the most frost-resistant and winter-hardy because the cytoplasm does not denature during prolonged freezing. Under optimal cultivation conditions, it withstands frosts down to -25…-30°C, at the depth of the tillering node — down to -18…-20°C. The optimum temperature for heading and flowering is 14–16°C.

For the entire development cycle, that is, from seed germination to grain ripening, at least 1800°C is required; from the beginning of spring regrowth to grain ripening — 1200–1500°C.

Moisture requirements

Winter rye is relatively drought-resistant due to its powerful root system. The transpiration coefficient is from 265 to 420. Maximum water consumption occurs during intensive growth — autumn heading and from stem elongation to heading. Lack of moisture during this period leads to the formation of small and low-productive ears.

Soil requirements

Thanks to its powerful root system, winter rye has lower soil requirements than other cereals. It grows well in the Non-Chernozem zone on sod-podzolic soils. Light and deep chernozems are preferable.

According to D. N. Pryanishnikov, the root system of winter rye has increased uptake capacity, especially for sparingly soluble phosphorus compounds. Therefore, phosphorite meal is applied under it, especially in the Non-Chernozem zone, where soils with increased acidity are widespread. In its ability to take up potassium from soil, it is inferior only to oats.

This crop can be cultivated on light loamy, sandy loam, and loose sandy soils, as well as on soils with increased acidity down to pH 5.3 and weak salinity. It can grow on light soils with low water-holding capacity, poorly suitable waterlogged, heavy clay, and newly developed lands. According to other data, viscous, clayey, heavily waterlogged, and saline soils are unsuitable for cultivation.

It is responsive to all methods of cultivation and increasing fertility.

Vegetation of winter rye

Phases

Phases of winter rye development:

emergence;
tillering;
stem elongation;
heading;
flowering;
milk ripeness of grain;
wax ripeness of grain;
full ripeness of grain.

Vegetation

Tillering of winter rye usually ends in autumn, but in some cases continues in spring, especially when autumn is cold and prolonged. The root system develops very quickly: by the end of tillering, roots penetrate to a depth of up to 1 m. Unlike other grain crops, the tillering node of winter rye is laid close to the soil surface at a depth of 1.7–2 cm regardless of sowing depth. Due to intensive autumn development, plants enter winter sufficiently hardened. In spring they quickly start growing, then develop well, strongly suppressing weeds.

Winter rye is more prone to snow smothering and waterlogging than winter wheat, especially if plants overgrow in autumn.

The first growth phases — tillering and stem elongation — proceed faster than in winter wheat, but the heading and flowering phases are extended. Tillering is stronger than in wheat — up to 4–10 stems, productive 2–3. After tillering, the stem elongation phase begins after 19–20 days. 30–35 days after resumption of spring vegetation, heading begins. In arid conditions this period is shortened; in wet and cool conditions it is extended.

Flowering begins 8–13 days after heading; flowering duration averages 10–12 days. In warm weather, flowering lasts from morning to noon. Grain begins to form 4–5 days after fertilization. Milk ripeness occurs after 10–15 days and lasts 7–10 days. Wax (yellow) ripeness begins after 12–16 days. Depending on weather and soil conditions, from heading to wax ripeness takes 35–50 days.

Winter rye is a cross-pollinated plant. Pollination occurs by wind with open flowers. Under unfavorable conditions during flowering, for example, heavy rains, lodging, or windy weather, some flowers are not fertilized, leading to poor grain set.

Winter rye is characterized by rapid height growth. Before heading, growth reaches 5 cm per day. With dense sowing or excess moisture and nitrogen nutrition, plants may lodge.

Although ripening of rye proceeds more slowly than in winter wheat, harvesting dates occur 6–10 days earlier. Usually the hard ripeness phase occurs 55–60 days after the beginning of heading.

After full ripeness, physiological ripening of grain lasts 25–30 days.

The duration of the growing season in northern regions averages 350 days, in central — 400 days, southern — 270 days.

Main factors provoking lodging:

dense crops;
excess moisture;
excess nitrogen nutrition.

Crop rotation

Unlike winter wheat, winter rye is less demanding on preceding crops. Nevertheless, under intensive farming, to obtain yields of 4–5 t/ha, it is better to place it after bare, occupied, and green-manure fallows, grain legumes or perennial legumes after the first cut, after early potato, rapeseed, annual grasses. In humid regions of the Non-Chernozem zone, it is placed after occupied fallows, for example, pea, vetch-oat, potato, etc.

In the central part of the Non-Chernozem zone, according to data of the Field Husbandry Experimental Station of MAA named after K. A. Timiryazev, on average over 5 years the winter rye yield after potato fallow was 29.7 dt/ha, with an additional 8 t/ha of early potato tubers obtained; after maize fallow — 30.3 dt/ha, with silage mass yield of 27.2 t/ha.

According to data of Kirov Agricultural Institute, on average over 5 years after fallow occupied by vetch-oat mixture, 23.7 dt/ha of winter rye grain and 35.8 dt/ha of hay were harvested; after clover fallow — 25.2 dt/ha of rye and 39.7 dt/ha of hay; after bare fallow — 28.2 dt/ha of grain. Total feed unit collection after occupied fallows is 35–51% higher than after bare fallow, and digestible protein — by 69–95%.

On sandy and sandy loam soils of western regions of the Non-Chernozem zone with sufficient moisture, that is, Smolensk and Bryansk oblasts, Belarus, winter rye is cultivated after green-manure fallows occupied by lupine for green manure.

The best preceding crops for winter rye in arid eastern and southeastern regions are bare and early fallows. After the same fallows, winter rye is sown in the north and northeast of the European part of Russia, where fallow-occupying crops do not have time to accumulate sufficient mass before sowing winter crops.

Winter rye gives a good yield even when cultivated in the same field two years in a row. In the Crop Production Laboratory of MAA named after K. A. Timiryazev, the yield on average over 5 years was 28.5 dt/ha for repeated cultivation, 29.5 dt/ha when sown after potato fallow, and 30.3 dt/ha after maize. Repeated sowings should be accompanied by application of organic and mineral fertilizers.

Winter rye is a good preceding crop for maize, potato, sugar beet, fodder root crops, etc.

Fertilizer system

With the winter rye harvest, per 1 t of grain and the corresponding amount of straw, 24–35 kg of nitrogen, 12–14 kg of phosphorus, and 24–40 kg of potassium are removed. Fertilizers are applied for the planned yield taking into account soil fertility, nutrient removal, and their utilization coefficients. Maximum consumption of mineral nutrients occurs in the tillering and stem elongation phases.

Under intensive cultivation technology, less nitrogen fertilizer is required than for winter wheat.

Calculation of fertilizer rates is made taking into account soil diagnostics of nutrient supply and planned yield.

Acidic soils are subjected to liming.

Main fertilizer

Manure is used as the main fertilizer for winter rye. Application rates on sod-podzolic soils and in areas of sufficient moisture are 30–40 t/ha, on chernozems and in arid conditions — 15–20 t/ha, on light soils — 30–50 t/ha. Manure gives a yield increase in almost all regions. Its effectiveness increases as soil water regime improves. Average yield increase from application of manure is for the Non-Chernozem zone — 6–8 dt/ha, in the Central Chernozem zone — 4–6 dt/ha, in the Southeast — 2–3 dt/ha.

The effect of manure on sod-podzolic soils increases when applied together with phosphorite meal. The per-hectare rate of manure-phosphorite compost is 10–15 t of manure mixed with 3–4 dt of phosphorite meal.

On sandy and sandy loam soils of the Non-Chernozem zone, green manure is effective. For this, annual lupine, serradella, or other crops are sown in the fallow in spring. The green mass in the phase of blue-green pods is plowed in 2–2.5 weeks before sowing rye. The yield increase from this practice reaches 8–10 dt/ha.

Only mineral fertilizers can be applied under winter rye. In Shchekinsky District of Tula Oblast on leached and podzolized chernozems, with winter rye grain yield of 35–38 dt/ha, the following is applied: for pre-sowing treatment P₄₀K₆₀, at sowing in rows P₂O₅ 10–15, early in spring as top dressing — N₅₀ kg/ha.

In the main fertilizer, potassium fertilizers are applied fully, most of the phosphorus, and 20–30% of the nitrogen from the total amount. Simultaneous incorporation of fertilizers increases their effectiveness by 1.5 times. Solid or liquid fertilizer forms are used for main application. The latter are incorporated to a depth of 12–30 cm.

Row fertilizer

Row fertilization with granular superphosphate (P₂₀) is of great importance in increasing winter rye yield. Complex fertilizers are also used.

According to data of VNIIUA, pre-sowing application in rows of 10 kg/ha P₂O₅ increased yield by 3 dt/ha. Row fertilizer improves plant nutrition in the initial period of development and increases resistance to unfavorable conditions.

Top dressing

Spring top dressing of winter rye with mineral fertilizers is quite effective. Overwintered plants are usually weakened and depleted, especially in need of nitrogen nutrition. In insufficiently thawed cold soil, nutrients are poorly available to plants, so top dressing is carried out as early as possible before regrowth begins. For this, ammonium nitrate is usually used at a rate of 0.8–1.0 dt/ha, or N_30-45.

Autumn or spring top dressing should be carried out taking into account soil and leaf diagnostics of plant nutrition.

According to data of VNIIUA, top dressing of winter rye in the Non-Chernozem zone with ammonium nitrate increased yield on average by 3 dt/ha.

The greatest need for nitrogen is noted in the tillering–stem elongation phase.

Early spring top dressing of winter rye is carried out in the same way as for winter wheat, across the rows, for example, with SZ-3.6 seeders.

Aerial top dressing is effective; fertilizers are evenly distributed over the surface, and work time is reduced.

Autumn top dressing is carried out when sowing winter rye after occupied fallows and non-fallow preceding crops; also if fertilizers were not applied before sowing or were applied in insufficient amounts.

In experiments of Bashkir Agricultural Institute, the yield increase of winter rye following occupied fallow was 3.8 dt/ha for autumn top dressing and 2.5 dt/ha for spring top dressing.

Under moisture deficit, on dried soils, root top dressing with complex fertilizer is carried out.

Soil tillage system

Main page: Soil tillage for winter crops

When winter rye is placed after occupied and bare fallows, the soil tillage system is similar to that for winter wheat. In occupied fallows, early-harvested crops are sown, which are harvested no later than three weeks before sowing rye.

In experiments of RIA of the Central Regions of the Non-Chernozem Zone, the winter rye yield after potato harvested on August 2 was 27.6 dt/ha, on August 10 — 24.4 dt/ha, and on August 20 — 22.9 dt/ha.

Following harvest of the fallow-occupying crop, the field is plowed to a depth of 22–25 cm with subsequent harrowing. If the soil remains unplowed even for a short time, it dries out, which also complicates its cultivation. For high-quality moldboard tillage, attachments PVR-3.5 to semi-mounted 8–9-furrow plows or PVR-2.3 to semi-mounted PLP-6-35 are used.

When placing winter rye after potato or other row crops, plowing can be replaced by disking to a depth of 8–10 cm with simultaneous harrowing.

When sowing after clover fallow or vetch-oat mixture, soil tillage consists of disking to a depth of 6–8 cm, application of organic fertilizers, plowing to a depth of 22–25 cm, and pre-sowing cultivation to the depth of seed placement.

After vetch-oat mixture and pea for grain, if organic fertilizers were not applied, and also in years with dry autumn, it is economically feasible to use surface tillage, including disking immediately after harvest of the preceding crop with a harrow of type BDT-7.0, BD-10, LDG-10 and subsequent cultivation with KPE-3.8A to a depth of 6–8 cm to level the seedbed. In experiments of RIA of the Central Regions of the Non-Chernozem Zone, the yield of winter rye variety Voskhod 2 with surface tillage was 52.4 dt/ha, with plowing — 50.4 dt/ha. In years with dry autumn, the yield with surface tillage was 3.7 dt/ha higher than with plowing.

Before sowing, pre-sowing cultivation is performed to the depth of seed sowing with cultivators KPSH-9 or KSP-4G. Good results are obtained with combined units, for example, RVK-3.6, RVK-5.4, RVK-7.2, KFG-3.6, AKR-3.6, or VIP-5.6.

The quality of pre-sowing treatment is assessed by the number of clods 1 to 5 cm in size, which should be at least 80%. Clods larger than 10 cm should be absent. Pre-sowing treatment is carried out at an angle to the main one; overlaps between adjacent passes should be 15–20 cm. The best method of unit movement is shuttle.

Sowing

Seed preparation

For sowing winter rye, sorted seeds with purity not lower than 97% and germination not less than 90% of class I and II sowing conditions are used. Before sowing, dressing is carried out against hard stem smut, fusariosis, and helminthosporiosis with 80% gMTD or pentathiram at a rate of 1.5–2 kg of preparation per 1 t of seeds. Machines PS-10A, PSh-5, and “Mobitox” can be used for treatment.

Dressing is combined with treatment with microelements and growth retardants, for example, preparation CeCeCe 460, and film-forming compositions (2% Na-CMC solution).

In northern regions, seeds from the previous year’s harvest are taken for sowing, since freshly harvested seeds have reduced germination. According to experiments of the Crop Production Laboratory of MAA named after K. A. Timiryazev, germination of freshly harvested winter rye seeds immediately after harvest was 38%, one week after harvest — 69%, two weeks — 74%, three weeks — 89%, one month — 96%.

The yield of winter rye variety Vyatka on average over 3 years was 19.5 dt/ha when sown with freshly harvested seeds, 23.1 dt/ha with pre-warmed seeds, and 23.4 dt/ha when sown with seeds from the previous year’s harvest.

If seeds from the previous year’s harvest are absent, freshly harvested seeds are warmed in the sun for 3–5 days or in grain dryers with active ventilation at 45–50°C, reducing moisture to 14–15%.

Sowing dates

Delay in sowing winter rye leads to plants entering winter insufficiently hardened, with risk of partial freezing. Too early sowing is associated with risk of excessive growth and snow smothering.

Based on long-term experience, approximate sowing dates have been determined in each region. In most cases they are longer than for winter wheat.

Sowing dates of winter rye:

Far North regions — August 1–15;
Non-Chernozem zone, Siberia, Far East — August 5–25 (30);
Central Chernozem zone, Southeast — August 15 to September 1;
Southern steppe zone, Lower Volga — September 1–20;
Steppe regions of the North Caucasus — September 15 – October 10.

Optimal sowing dates for winter rye occur at an average daily air temperature of 15°C. The limit sowing date is considered the time when average daily temperature drops to 10°C. In order for plants to form 3–4 stems in autumn, which is optimal for overwintering, the period from emergence to cessation of autumn vegetation should last at least 45–50 days with a total sum of average daily temperatures of (360) 420–480°C.

Sowing methods

Winter rye is sown by conventional row or narrow-row methods. Narrow-row sowing is more effective, as more uniform distribution of seeds over the area is achieved. Compared with conventional row sowing, it gives a yield increase of 1–2 dt/ha.

The optimal direction of rows is from north to south, which improves illumination in rows and reduces overheating of plants at midday.

When sowing, it is advisable to leave a technological strip.

Seeding rates

Approximate seeding rates:

in the Non-Chernozem zone — 5.0–7.0 million/ha germinating seeds (160–200 kg/ha);
in the Central Chernozem zone — 4.5–6.0 million/ha germinating seeds (150–170 kg/ha);
in Ukrainian Polesie — 4–5 million/ha germinating seeds;
in the Volga region — 3.5–5.5 million/ha germinating seeds;
in the forest-steppe — 3.8–5.5 million/ha germinating seeds;
in the North Caucasus (steppe regions) — 4.0–4.5 million/ha germinating seeds;
in the Urals, Siberia, and Northern Kazakhstan — 6–6.5 million/ha germinating seeds (160–180 kg/ha).

As one moves from humid to arid regions, seeding rates are reduced. On well-tilled and fertilized fields, they are reduced by 0.3–0.5 million/ha seeds. When sowing is delayed, rates are increased by 8–10%; when placed on sandy and sandy loam soils, rates are increased by 8–10% relative to the accepted rate for the given zone.

Under intensive cultivation technology, seeding rates are reduced.

Sowing depth

Winter rye lays its tillering node at the soil surface, so its seeds are incorporated to a depth of 4–5 cm. On heavy and sufficiently moist soils, incorporation is done to a depth of 3–4 cm; on light and well-drying soils — to 5–6 cm. Sowing depth for small seeds is reduced.

Crop care

When placing winter rye after non-fallow preceding crops in dry autumn, post-sowing rolling of crops with ring-spur or ring-tooth rollers of type ZKKSh-6, KKN-2.8 is used. This promotes rapid and uniform emergence and better overwintering.

To protect plants from waterlogging in autumn, in closed depressions barrier ridges are arranged or wells are made down to the water-permeable subsoil layer. Such methods of water removal, for example, are used in Leningrad, Pskov, and other northwestern oblasts.

In winter rye care, spring harrowing of crops with tooth harrows BZSS-1 is common. This practice allows loosening the topsoil compacted over winter, which reduces moisture loss to evaporation and improves aeration. During harrowing, dead leaves are removed and weeds are destroyed, which are foci of spread of diseases and pests in crops.

The harrowing period due to rapid plant development in spring is 4–5 days, so it begins when the soil reaches physical maturity, as soon as the soil stops sticking and can be easily loosened. Too early harrowing, like late harrowing, is ineffective.

On heavy and medium-textured soils with well-tillered winter crops, harrowing is carried out with heavy harrows BZTS-1 across the rows in two passes; on light soils with weakly developed plants — with light harrows in one pass.

According to long-term data of experimental institutions, timely harrowing increases winter rye yield by 2–3 dt/ha.

Agricultural technology of spring rye

Cultivation technology of spring rye is similar to growing other early spring grain crops. The best preceding crops are row crops and grain legumes.

The rate of complete mineral fertilizer is 30–40 kg/ha NPK. Early sowing dates are optimal. With the conventional row sowing method, the seeding rate is 5–7 million/ha germinating seeds.

Crop care includes harrowing in the tillering phase across the rows in 1–2 passes.

Harvesting is mainly carried out in two phases in the wax ripeness phase of grain.

Plant protection system

Chemical weeding of winter rye crops is, as a rule, not carried out, since due to rapid growth and tall stems rye suppresses weeds well; however, on sparse crops when cultivating short-stemmed varieties, herbicides are used to control weeds. Treatment of crops with simazine after sowing at a rate of 0.25 kg/ha a.i. or in the tillering phase with 2,4-D amine salt at a rate of 0.6–1 kg/ha a.i. is effective.

Pest and disease control is the same as for winter wheat.

The most common diseases of winter rye include root rots, snow mold, and brown rust. Pests include Swedish and Hessian flies, green-eyed fly, corn ground beetle, winter cutworm, aphid, and click beetles.

Previously, to prevent lodging of crops, the retardant camposan was used in the phase of beginning stem elongation at a rate of 2–3 kg/ha a.i.. Treatment with a mixture of camposan M and tur at a dosage of camposan M 0.75–1 kg/ha and tur 1.8–2 kg/ha a.i. is more effective. Currently, the preparation CeCeCe 460 is used for these purposes at a consumption rate of 1.5–2.5 g/l.

Harvesting

Winter rye ripens uniformly; when overripe, it begins to shatter heavily; in wet and warm weather it may sprout (in swaths and on the root). Therefore, harvesting is carried out in a short time (8–10 days) by a two-phase or one-phase method.

Two-phase harvesting during wax ripeness allows good drying of grain and long wet stems in swaths, primarily thin-layer, on stubble 25–30 cm high, and accelerates post-harvest ripening of grain. Mowing is carried out at grain moisture of 35–20%, that is, from the middle to the end of wax ripeness).

One-phase harvesting is carried out during full grain ripeness in regions with increased humidity. Grain moisture during direct combining is 18–15%.

The one-phase method can also be used on clean crops.

For harvesting lodged winter rye, the best results are obtained when harvesting units move across the lodging or at an angle to it.

Winter rye varieties

Dyatka 2. The variety was developed at RIA of the Northeast. Mid-late, winter-hardy, resistant to snow smothering and waterlogging. Poorly resistant to lodging. Weakly affected by snow mold. Baking qualities are good. Released in the Non-Chernozem zone and Western Siberia.

Kharkovskaya 55. The variety was developed by the Ukrainian RI of Plant Production, Breeding and Genetics. Mid-season, medium winter-hardy, resistant to lodging. High-yielding. Released in the Central Chernozem zone, Volga region, and Ukraine.

Kharkovskaya 60. The variety was developed by the Ukrainian RI of Plant Production, Breeding and Genetics. Mid-season, winter hardiness above average, resistant to lodging, resistant to snow mold. Baking qualities good. Released in the Non-Chernozem, Central Chernozem zones, Ukraine, and Belarus.

Vyatka. The variety was developed at Falenskaya State Breeding Station. Mid-late, winter-hardy, insufficiently drought-resistant. Prone to lodging. Moderately resistant to brown rust; resistance to stem rust is above average. High-yielding. Released in the Non-Chernozem zone, Urals, Western and Eastern Siberia.

Belta. The variety was developed at the Belarusian RIA. Mid-season, medium winter-hardy, resistant to lodging. Baking qualities good. High-yielding. Released in Belarus, on drained peat-bog soils of Moscow, Zhitomir, Lviv, and on mineral soils of Ternopil oblasts.

Saratovskaya 4. The variety was developed at RIA of the Southeast. Mid-season, winter-hardy, drought-resistant, resistant to lodging and shattering. High-yielding. Released in the Volga region, Mordovia, Tatarstan, Kursk and Rostov oblasts.

Varieties also became widespread: Saratovskaya krupnozernaya (RIA of the Southeast), Chulpan (Bashkir RIA), Voskhod 2 (RIA of the Central Regions of the Non-Chernozem Zone), Galovskaya 12 (RIA of the Central Chernozem Zone named after V. V. Dokuchaev), Korotkostebelnaya 69 (Siberian RIA).

Spring rye varieties

The spring rye variety Onokhovskaya was developed by the Buryat Agricultural Experimental Station. Mid-early, drought-resistant, prone to lodging and shattering. In yield it surpasses local Siberian varieties. Released in Buryatia, Tuva, Yakutia, Irkutsk and Chita oblasts.

References

Vavilov P. P., Gritsenko V. V., Kuznetsov V. S. et al. (1986). Crop Production. Ed. by Vavilov P. P. 5th ed., revised and expanded. Moscow: Agropromizdat.
Kolomeichenko V. V. (2007). Crop Production/Textbook. Moscow: Agrobusinesscenter.
Niklyaev V. S. (2000). Fundamentals of Agricultural Production Technology. Farming and Crop Production. Moscow: “Bylina.”
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