Spring wheat

Last updated: June 22, 2025

Spring wheat belongs to spring bread crops of group I and is one of the most valuable food crops in the world.

Economic importance

Spring wheat is one of the most valuable food crops. In the USSR, the gross grain harvest of spring wheat in 1976–1980 accounted for more than 41%.

Grain of spring wheat grown in Siberia and the Southeast of Russia, as well as Kazakhstan, contains 16–18% protein, and in dry years up to 20%. The most protein is found in durum wheat grain. On average, durum wheat grain contains 15–18% protein, common wheat 14–16%, and gluten 28–40%.

Semolina and pasta products are made from durum wheat flour. Flour from common wheat grain is used in baking and as an improver. During the USSR, spring wheat grain was recognized worldwide for its quality and technological properties.

Spring wheat bran is a concentrated feed for all types of farm animals. Straw and chaff are also used for feed.

Cultivation areas and yield

Spring wheat is cultivated almost everywhere in Russia; in the north, crops extend to the Arctic Circle. More than half of the crops are concentrated in arid and severely arid regions, about a quarter in insufficiently moistened areas, and less than 25% in sufficiently moistened areas. The main cultivation areas are the Volga region, the Southern Urals, Western and Eastern Siberia. These regions account for up to 80% of the gross grain harvest. The introduction of new varieties and intensive technologies made it possible to increase its sown area in the Non-Chernozem zone. Among the countries of the former USSR, Kazakhstan had 16 million ha under this crop during the USSR.

Due to insufficient moisture, average yields are relatively low, but the grain contains much protein and gluten. When grown in the Non-Chernozem zone, higher yields are obtained, but quality and gluten content are often lower.

In regions where winter wheat has an advantage in yield and cultivation conditions, for example, in the North Caucasus, spring wheat is used as an insurance crop for reseeding after poor overwintering.

During the USSR period, the sown area increased sharply: in 1913, spring wheat occupied 24.7 million ha, while in 1982 it exceeded 41 million ha.

Average yield in the 1990s in Russia was 1.2 t/ha. Maximum yield at state variety testing plots of the Non-Chernozem zone and the Volga region reached 4–5 t/ha.

In 2001–2005, spring wheat in Russia occupied about 15 million ha, or 33% of the total area of grain crops and 46% of spring bread crops of group I. The gross harvest in this period was 21 million t, or 27% of the total grain harvest. Average yield was 1.5 t/ha, which is 1.2 t/ha less than winter wheat. This is due to less favorable soil and climatic conditions of the main cultivation areas, where annual precipitation is often 250–400 mm, droughts and high summer temperatures occur, and also to a low level of agricultural technology. High agricultural technology and intensive cultivation technologies can ensure spring wheat yields of up to 2–4 t/ha depending on moisture availability.

Spring wheat is represented by two species: common and durum. Common wheat is cultivated everywhere, and its share in crops predominates. Durum wheat in some years occupies 10–15% of the total sown area of spring wheat. It is cultivated in the steppe regions, in the south and central part of the Urals, Orenburg oblast, the Volga region, the Trans-Urals, Western Siberia, Rostov oblast, the steppe regions of Kuban, the Central Chernozem zone, as well as the eastern oblasts of Ukraine and Kazakhstan.

By area sown to durum wheat, the USSR ranked first in the world. The yield of durum wheat when sown on clean fallow was sometimes higher than that of common wheat. For example, at the Michurinsky state farm in Kokchetav oblast (now part of Akmola oblast, Kazakhstan), durum wheat yielded an average of 2.0 t/ha of grain, common wheat 1.3 t/ha. At the Kommunizm state farm in the same oblast, the yield of durum wheat was 1.8 t/ha, common wheat 1.5 t/ha.

Compared with common wheat, durum wheat is more resistant to shattering, less damaged by the Hessian fly, less affected by rust and loose smut, more resistant to lodging, and better uses irrigation water; therefore it is a valuable crop for irrigated agriculture. Thanks to somewhat later ripening than common wheat, it allows field work to be distributed more evenly.

Durum wheat is considered a more demanding crop than common wheat, so it gives high yields in sunny, good weather. It is cultivated mainly in the Volga region and Western Siberia.

The maximum yield of spring wheat was achieved in advanced farms of the USSR: at the Rossiya collective farm in the Tatar ASSR in 1982 — 47.3 c/ha, at the Nazarovsky state farm in Krasnoyarsk krai — 34.0 c/ha. The average yield in 1976–1980 was 12.2 c/ha, and in 1982 over 14 c/ha.

Biological characteristics

In Russia, two species of spring wheat are mainly cultivated: common wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and durum wheat (Triticum durum Desf.). Common wheat accounts for about 90% of all sown areas due to greater plasticity and better adaptation to soil and climatic conditions.

Plant height is up to 90–110 cm; it has a poorly developed root system, especially durum wheat; productive tillering is 1.1–1.8. The 1000-grain weight of common wheat is 30–40 g, of durum wheat 40–55 g. It is a long-day plant and cold-resistant.

Self-pollinating crop. Growing season is 70–115 days. When moving north, ripening occurs faster. Unlike winter crops, it develops more slowly and is more strongly suppressed by weeds.

An important stage in plant development is the formation of nodal roots, which are important in forming high yields, since seminal roots cannot sufficiently provide plants with moisture and nutrients. The formation of nodal roots is influenced by sufficient moisture at the depth of the tillering node, the amount of nutrients in available form, sowing depth, optimal sowing dates, and seed quality. In the main cultivation areas, droughts in the early spring period dry out the upper soil layer, which can cause poor development of not only nodal but also seminal roots.

Ecological requirements

Temperature requirements

Spring wheat seeds germinate at +1…+2 °C, and viable seedlings at +4…+5 °C. However, germination and emergence at such temperatures are very slow. At soil temperature at seed placement depth of 5 °C, seedlings appear on the 20th day; at 8 °C, on the 13th; at 10 °C, on the 9th; at 15 °C, on the 7th day. The sum of active temperatures during the sowing–emergence period is 100–130 °C. Seedlings can withstand short frosts down to -10 °C. Spring wheat shows the greatest resistance to negative temperatures in the early phases. Thus, during seed germination, spring wheat withstands frosts down to -6…-13 °C; in the tillering phase, down to -8…-9 °C. During flowering and grain filling, it can be damaged by frosts of -1…-2 °C.

Tillering proceeds best at 10…12 °C. Reduced soil temperature during this period promotes the formation and development of nodal roots, thereby increasing yield. In the heading and milk-ripeness phases, the optimal temperature is 16–23 °C.

The sum of active temperatures from emergence to heading is 800–900 °C; from heading to ripening, 650–700 °C.

Negative temperatures during ripening can damage grain. Frost-damaged grain has poor technological and sowing qualities.

Common wheat varieties are more resistant to spring frosts than durum wheat. In the tillering phase, common wheat tolerates frosts down to -5…-8 °C, whereas durum wheat is damaged at temperatures from +1 to -2 °C.

Spring wheat tolerates high temperatures poorly; at 38…40 °C, stomatal paralysis occurs after 10–17 h. Dry winds in hot weather intensify the negative effect of high temperatures.

Varieties of common and durum wheat released in Central Asian countries and the Southeast of Russia are the most tolerant to high temperatures. Among early spring grain crops, wheat is the most resistant to elevated temperatures when moisture is sufficient.

Moisture requirements

For germination of common wheat seeds, 50–60% water by mass of dry grain is required; for durum wheat, 55–67%, since they contain more protein. The transpiration coefficient of common wheat is about 415, of durum wheat 406.

Spring wheat is the most moisture-demanding crop among spring bread crops of group I.

According to data from the Department of Crop Production of the Altai Agricultural Institute, the root system of durum wheat by the end of the heading phase and beginning of grain filling is about 80% of the roots of common wheat. Durum wheat roots penetrate slightly deeper into the soil, but are inferior in total length and mass. In the initial period of development, durum wheat is inferior to common wheat in the working absorbing surface of the root system; in the second period it exceeds it by 0.18 m²/g. These differences determine the lower sensitivity of durum wheat to soil and atmospheric drought, especially during grain formation and filling. Under irrigation, durum spring wheat gives higher yields than common wheat.

By development phases, water consumption is distributed as follows: during emergence, 5–7% of total water consumption for the entire growing season; in the tillering phase, 15–20%; during stem elongation and heading, 50–60%; in milk ripeness, 20–30%; in wax ripeness, 3–5%. From emergence to milk ripeness, 70–80%.

When moisture reserves in the meter layer in spring are less than 100 mm, a water deficit is noted; when reserves are less than 60 mm, yield drops sharply.

The critical period of water uptake occurs in the tillering–stem elongation phases. Lack of soil moisture in this period leads to an increase in the number of sterile spikelets, which is often observed in northern Kazakhstan, Western and Eastern Siberia. Subsequent precipitation, including abundant rainfall, cannot compensate for the moisture deficit in this period. Under these conditions, spring wheat quickly passes from one development phase to another, and yield drops sharply. In the European part of Russia, with early sowing dates, the critical period occurs under somewhat more favorable conditions. In the regions of northern Kazakhstan, on the contrary, the best conditions for growth and development are created with later sowing dates.

The optimal soil moisture for plants is 70–75% of minimum moisture capacity.

Soil requirements

Spring wheat is demanding regarding the presence of nutrients in available form in the soil, which is explained by the short growing season and reduced absorbing ability of the root system.

Durum wheat is most demanding of fertility, cleanliness of crops, and soil structure; it does well on chernozem and chestnut soils. For common wheat, all types of chernozems, chestnut, medium- and weakly podzolic soils are favorable. Sod-podzolic and gray forest soils must be limed, and organic and mineral fertilizers applied. Heavy clay and light sandy soils are unsuitable for cultivation.

Wheat is suppressed by increased soil acidity. A slightly acidic and neutral (pH 6.0–7.5) reaction is optimal.

In the first period of life, the roots of common wheat mainly spread laterally, while those of durum wheat penetrate deep into the soil. The depth of root penetration is influenced by soil type. The mass of roots in the wax ripeness phase in sod-podzolic soil at a depth of 20 cm is 68% of the total root mass; in dark chestnut soil, 52%; in southern chernozem, 40%. With moisture deficiency, root growth in depth in the lower layers stops.

A feature of spring wheat is uneven and sparse seedlings; the cause in the southern and southeastern regions is insufficient moisture of the upper soil layer, and in the northern regions increased soil acidity and seed damage by Fusarium.

Vegetation

Growth phases:

emergence;
tillering;
stem elongation;
heading;
flowering;
milk ripeness;
wax ripeness;
full ripeness.

The period from emergence to tillering is 15–22 days. In the tillering phase, primary roots penetrate to 50 cm depth; in the heading phase, to 130 cm. Nodal roots begin to appear in the 3rd–4th leaf phase; their growth is possible only with sufficient moisture.

The secondary root system makes good use of moisture from summer precipitation, but the formation of these roots is short — from formation of the tillering node to stem elongation.

The duration of the tillering phase is 11–26 days depending on soil and climatic conditions.

Ear formation begins at the beginning of tillering (in the 3rd leaf phase). The number of spikelets depends on sufficient moisture and nitrogen and phosphorus nutrition conditions.

Crop rotation

Spring wheat, primarily durum and strong common wheat, places increased demands on preceding crops. For it, soils with a fine crumb structure, rich in nutrients, sufficiently moistened and clean of weeds are optimal.

In Western Siberia, the Urals, the Trans-Urals and northern Kazakhstan, the predecessors of spring wheat may be: layer and turnover of perennial grass sod, maize, sunflower, potato, grain legumes. In the steppe arid regions, clean fallow is considered the best place in crop rotation. According to data from SibSibRIA, on average over 18 years the yield of spring wheat on clean fallow was 1.81 t/ha, and on autumn plowing after grain crops 1.24 t/ha.

In Kazakhstan, over large areas, spring wheat is sown in the zone of arid and dry steppes, where average annual precipitation is no more than 300–350 mm. Measures for accumulating and preserving soil moisture come first here. For this, clean and coulisse fallows are used; under severely arid conditions they allow obtaining high stable yields. According to long-term observations of experimental institutions in northern Kazakhstan, clean fallows have a great influence on spring wheat yield, especially in drought years.

Table. Effect of clean fallow on spring wheat yield (Kazakhstan).

Experimental institution	Number of years of experiment	Average yield (c/ha) when sown after predecessor
Experimental institution	Number of years of experiment	clean fallow	wheat after fallow	wheat two years in a row
ARRIZF	4	13.9	12.0	9.0
North Kazakhstan State Regional Agricultural Experimental Station	6	13.3	11.1	8.4
Tselinograd Machine Testing Station	5	15.4	—	6.4
Karaganda State Regional Agricultural Experimental Station	4	12.0	—	8.0
Karabalyk Agricultural Experimental Station	11	19.8	—	13.2

The yield of spring wheat on clean fallow in Moskalen district of Omsk oblast averaged over 8 years 20.5 c/ha, after maize 13.8 c/ha, after grain crops 11.7 c/ha.

Research of ARRIZF and other experimental stations of northern Kazakhstan shows that in the eastern steppe regions with an arid climate, the greatest grain output is obtained in grain-fallow crop rotations with short rotation when spring wheat is placed on clean fallow and as the second crop after it.

In the Volga region, based on long-term experiments of scientific institutions and the practice of advanced farms, the best predecessors of spring wheat are row crops and winter crops. In the most arid regions, clean fallows become more important.

In the North Caucasus, the Central Chernozem zone and southern Ukraine, predecessors may be winter crops, row crops (maize, sunflower, potato) and grain legumes. At Orel Agricultural Experimental Station, spring wheat after winter rye averaged over 3 years 1.7 t/ha grain, after potato 2.0 t/ha, after pea 1.8 t/ha, after sugar beet 1.8 t/ha.

The value of grain legumes as predecessors of spring wheat also lies in the fact that after them plants are less affected by Fusarium. In southern and southeastern regions, spring wheat does well after melon crops (watermelon, melon) following fallow.

In the Non-Chernozem zone, spring wheat is placed after potato, under which manure was applied, after fiber flax and winter crops. At Kazan Agricultural Experimental Station over 4 years, the yield of spring wheat after potato was 2.0 t/ha, after pea 2.3 t/ha.

Fertilizer system

Spring wheat is responsive to fertilizer application. To form 1 t of grain and the corresponding amount of straw, 35–45 kg nitrogen, 8–12 kg phosphorus and 17–34 kg potassium are used.

In the initial phases of development, spring wheat responds little to increased nitrogen doses. In the tillering and stem elongation phases, when additional stems, roots, ears and flowers form, nitrogen consumption increases sharply. During grain formation and filling, it decreases somewhat.

The greatest need for phosphorus is noted from the beginning of tillering to stem elongation. Phosphorus nutrition affects the development of the root system and spikelets, and less affects the development of stems and leaves.

Potassium is important during heading and grain filling. It promotes the movement of carbohydrates from stems and leaves to grain, reduces damage by rust and root rots, grain becomes larger and better filled, and it affects straw strength.

When sown on fertilized plots, spring wheat develops a better root system and uses moisture more economically, thus better withstands drought. On gray forest and podzolic soils, mineral and organic fertilizers are of great importance. Application of manure and peat compost gives yield increases, for example, in Western Siberia up to 35–40%, in the Non-Chernozem zone more than 50%.

According to ARRIZF data, soils of steppe regions of Kazakhstan and Western Siberia during fallowing can accumulate excess nitrogen, while phosphorus may be insufficient. Therefore application of phosphorus fertilizers improves the nitrogen-phosphorus nutrition of spring wheat.

The use of organic fertilizers provides yield increases. For example, in Western Siberia increases reach 35–40%, in the Non-Chernozem zone more than 50%.

In experiments of ARRIZF, phosphorus fertilizers at rate P₆₀ incorporated into fallow, on average over 13 years increased grain yield by 3.3 c/ha. The total increase in the year of application and over 2–3 years of aftereffect was 6–11 c/ha, or 13–18 kg grain per 1 kg P₂O₅.

For determining fertilizer rates, calculation methods are used for planned yield taking into account nutrient removal, nutrient content in soil and utilization coefficients. Variety characteristics are also taken into account. Nitrogen doses are calculated taking into account spring soil and plant diagnostics.

Effectiveness of nitrogen fertilizers depends on moisture. Thus, in the steppe part of Western Siberia, when productive moisture reserves in spring are less than 500 t/ha, application of nitrogen fertilizers before sowing is not recommended because excess nitrogen at the beginning of vegetation promotes rapid growth of vegetative mass and excessive water consumption for transpiration.

Overall, approximate rates of mineral fertilizers for spring wheat are: N_30-45, P_40-60, K_30-40.

On fertilized fields, spring wheat forms a more powerful root system, so it uses moisture more economically and tolerates drought more easily.

When fertilizing fallow fields, it is necessary to take into account that nitrogen content there is often sufficient; in the steppe zone, phosphorus deficiency is noted.

Among microfertilizers, the following are used: on sod-podzolic and gray forest soils — boron, magnesium, copper and molybdenum fertilizers; on chernozem soils — manganese.

Main fertilizer

Manure, peat or local organic fertilizers are used as main fertilizer. Manure rates for chernozem soils are 15–20 t/ha; for gray forest and sod-podzolic soils, 20–30 t/ha.

Among mineral fertilizers, phosphorus and potassium are applied in autumn under main soil cultivation. Nitrogen fertilizers are applied in spring under cultivation or in rows at sowing; in the arid zone, complete fertilizer is applied.

Row fertilizer

Row fertilizer is applied in addition to the main fertilizer at sowing. Two-layer (main and row) placement of fertilizers allows providing wheat with nutrients for the entire growing season.

The greatest effect from row application is given by granular superphosphate at rate P10-20. With sufficient moisture after grain or row crops, instead of superphosphate, complex fertilizers can be used, for example, nitrophoska, ammophos, diammophos. In experiments of ARRI FAS, the increase from row application of superphosphate was on sod-podzolic sandy loam and light loam 2.3 c/ha; on heavy loam 2.4 c/ha; on gray forest soil 1.6 c/ha; on leached chernozem 1.5 c/ha. The grain increase per 1 kg P₂O₅ with row application was 20.2 kg, with broadcast application 6.9 kg.

Top dressing

Top dressing is used as an additional measure to the main fertilizer in areas of sufficient moisture, and also if fertilizers were not applied or not fully applied before sowing. It is optimal to carry out top dressing during tillering with nitrogen fertilizers.

According to data from ARRI FAS, nitrogen top dressing at 15 kg/ha in the tillering phase gave an increase under conditions of the Northwestern zone on average over 3 years of 2.1 c/ha (control yield 28.1 c/ha). In experiments of RIA of the Central Regions of the Non-Chernozem zone, nitrogen top dressing at 30–45 kg/ha at the beginning of tillering increased yield by 2.3 c/ha, or 14%.

Nitrogen top dressing in the tillering–flowering phases improves grain quality. They are carried out taking into account leaf diagnostics of plant nutrition. Top dressing can be combined with treatment with retardants and herbicides.

Soil cultivation system

The main task of soil cultivation for spring wheat in the main cultivation zones is accumulation and preservation of autumn-winter precipitation and weed control.

In the European part of Russia, soil preparation consists of autumn stubble discing followed by plowing with skimmers and pre-sowing cultivation. When annual weeds spread, discing is carried out with disc harrows to a depth of 6–8 cm, followed by ridged plowing to 20–22 cm after weeds regrow. When perennial root-suckering weeds spread, two treatments are carried out: first, disc harrows to 6–8 cm immediately after harvesting the predecessor; second, after rosettes appear, share harrows to 12–14 cm with harrowing. Autumn plowing is performed after repeated weed regrowth to a depth of 25–27 cm. After row predecessors (potato, maize, sugar beet, sunflower), discing is carried out in two transverse directions followed by plowing with skimmer plows. Under conditions of water erosion development, treatment is carried out across the slope; to reduce water runoff, ridging is possible, for which on one body of the plow the moldboard is lengthened by 25–30 cm.

In the South and Southeast of Russia, when sowing spring wheat after grain and grain legume crops, stubble discing is carried out with disc harrows, for example LDG-10, LDG-15, and early deep autumn plowing with skimmer plows (PLN-6-35, PLN-5-35). In wet weather, discing reduces weed infestation. In dry years, weed seeds on a disc-harrowed field germinate poorly due to lack of moisture, so the effectiveness of the measure decreases sharply.

In most regions, autumn plowing is not harrowed, leaving it ridged. However, in arid steppe regions, where there is little autumn precipitation and snow in winter, the ridges of autumn plowing are strongly dried out under temperature fluctuations at night and day in late autumn. In addition, strong winds blow away the upper dried soil layer from fields. Therefore, in such regions, early deep plowing with skimmer plows is carried out with simultaneous leveling of the soil surface. Such autumn treatment allows accumulating more moisture over the summer-autumn period and preserving it better.

In winter, snow retention is carried out with snowplows SVU-2.6 or UVS-9. In spring, to close moisture, harrowing is done with BZTS-1 or BZSS-1. Pre-sowing cultivation is carried out to seed placement depth with cultivators KPS-4 or combined unit RVK-3.6.

In the forest-steppe zone, moldboard treatment to 20–22 cm is mainly used; where erosion risk exists, nonmoldboard treatment is used.

Table. Effect of moldboard and nonmoldboard soil cultivation on spring wheat yield.

Experimental institution	Number of years of experiment	Average yield (c/ha) when sowing
Experimental institution	Number of years of experiment	under autumn treatment with moldboard plows	after autumn treatment with nonmoldboard implements
ARRIZF	7	9.5	12.8
Tselinograd Agricultural Experimental Station	9	7.7	10.6
Semipalatinsk State Regional Agricultural Experimental Station	3	10.5	13.4
Kustanai Regional State Agricultural Experimental Station	6	7.2	11.3
SibSibRIA	5	10.8	13.4
Ural Agricultural Experimental Station	4	7.5	13.0

In the Trans-Urals, adjacent regions of Western Siberia and northern Kazakhstan, ordinary autumn treatment is ineffective. Annual moldboard plowing pulverizes soil susceptible to wind erosion. In winter, strong winds blow snow from autumn plowing, and on light soils pulverized particles are blown away along with snow. Under these conditions, an anti-erosion system of nonmoldboard soil cultivation with flat-cutting implements leaving stubble on the surface (flat-cut soil cultivation) is used. Such treatment reduces the negative effect of wind erosion and increases yield by 2–3 c/ha compared to moldboard treatment.

The depth of flat-cut treatment depends on soil type and ranges from 12 to 27 cm. Fallow fields on light soils are treated to 12–14 cm.

After non-fallow predecessors in the steppe zone, flat-cut treatment is carried out to 10–14 cm; in dry years it is replaced by treatment with needle harrows.

According to long-term observations of ARRIZF, soil moisture content in the meter layer before sowing with autumn moldboard plowing was 73 mm; with nonmoldboard, 93 mm.

In steppe regions of Western Siberia and northern Kazakhstan, fallow fields, as a rule, begin to be treated in early spring with flat-cut cultivators KPP-2.2, which cut weeds, loosen soil to 8–10 cm, while preserving 85–90% of stubble on the field surface. After 18–20 days, a second treatment is carried out to 10–14 cm; during summer, treatment is performed 3–4 times. In summer, for fallow care, the KSh-3.6 rod cultivator is also used, intended for treatment to 5–10 cm. On fields infested with couch grass, in summer fallows are treated with heavy cultivators KPE-3.8 to 16 cm. At the end of August, loosening is carried out to 25–27 cm with the KPG-250 flat-cut deep loosener. During the last treatment, perennial root-suckering weeds are destroyed and soil water permeability improves. To close moisture on fields with preserved stubble, harrowing is done with a BIG-3A needle harrow. Sowing, weed cutting and soil rolling are performed simultaneously using stubble seeders SZS-2.1 or SZS-9.

With high infestation of wild oat, in autumn treatment with a needle harrow is carried out to incorporate seeds. In spring, as it regrows, flat-cut treatment is performed to 8–10 cm, or, in the absence of perennial species, treated with needle harrows.

Fields infested with couch grass are plowed in autumn to the depth of rhizome occurrence; in spring-summer, mechanical and chemical treatments are carried out.

Nonmoldboard soil cultivation is effective on clean fields. On heavily infested fields it is combined with moldboard treatment, especially in wet years.

In the Non-Chernozem zone, an effective method of increasing spring wheat yield is deepening the arable layer. According to long-term data of the Mendeleev Experimental Field (Perm oblast), deepening the arable layer from 16 to 22 cm after flax gave an average yield increase of 4.1 c/ha.

Pre-sowing treatment should also ensure maximum preservation of moisture accumulated over winter, destruction of weeds and quality preparation of the field for sowing. For this, in early spring autumn plowing is harrowed and cultivated. In dry steppe conditions, loss of 10 mm moisture leads to a decrease in wheat yield by 1 c/ha. Harrowing begins when tops of ridges dry out, after which pre-sowing cultivation is immediately carried out across the plowing direction to seed sowing depth.

In RIA of the Central Regions of the Non-Chernozem zone, replowing autumn plowing to 15–16 cm produced spring wheat yield of 17.2 c/ha; cultivation of autumn plowing to 7 cm — 16.9 c/ha; with chisel cultivator loosening to 18 cm — 19.6 c/ha. In production conditions, an even greater effect is often observed from replacing replowing with deep loosening.

On light soils, one harrowing is limited. After deep pre-sowing cultivation, rolling with a heavy roller gives good results for creating favorable conditions for seed germination, uniform emergence, tillering and yield. According to data from the Department of Crop Production of MAA named after K. A. Timiryazev, the yield increase of spring wheat from pre-sowing rolling with a ring roller was 2.1 c/ha.

When preparing soil for better leveling of the soil surface, it is effective to use drags and harrows (separately or in a unit with harrows).

With strong compaction of heavy podzolic and solonetzic soils over winter, loosening is carried out to 10–12 cm with flat-cut implements (instead of replowing with moldboard plows) with simultaneous harrowing. On clean and loose cultivated fields, harrowing is limited instead of pre-sowing cultivation to avoid additional soil drying and speed up sowing dates.

With nonmoldboard soil cultivation, needle harrows and disc harrows can be used for early spring treatment. On plowed autumn land, tooth harrows. In warm spring, for better suppression of emerging weeds, two treatments are possible. For pre-sowing treatment, cultivators are used, and when infested with wild oat, disc harrows in a unit with harrows. On clean fields, sowing directly with stubble seeders is possible.

Accumulation of moisture

For obtaining high and stable yields of spring wheat, snow retention techniques are of great importance, as proven by numerous experiments and farm practice. Labor and resource costs for these techniques are recouped by increased yield.

In experiments of the RIA of the Southeast, on average over 20 years, spring wheat yield with snow retention techniques was 3.8 c/ha higher than in plots without snow retention. At the West Kazakhstan Agricultural Experimental Station, according to long-term data, the yield increase was 4.5–5 c/ha.

According to data from the Volgograd Agricultural Experimental Station, snow retention also promotes efficient use of fertilizers. On average over 3 years, yield without snow retention and fertilizers was 7.9 c/ha, with mineral fertilizers — up to 12.4 c/ha.

In steppe regions of Western Siberia and Northern Kazakhstan, coulisses are used as a snow retention technique. For example, in five-year experiments of the Slavgorod Experimental Station (Altai Krai), on fields with coulisses the snow cover thickness increased from 10 to 47 cm, and yield increased by 6.3 c/ha.

To retain snow on fallow fields in summer, tall crops are sown, for example sunflower or mustard, in 2–3 rows every 10–12 m.

In the steppe zone, mustard is more suitable for coulisses; it is sown in the first ten days of July, seeding rate — 0.5 kg/ha, so that there are 20–30 plants per 1 linear meter. For the forest-steppe zone, sunflower is more suitable with row spacing of 70 cm; sowing is carried out in the first half of June, with a distance between coulisses of 20–24 m.

On fields occupied by corn or sunflower, during harvesting 2–3 rows of uncut stems are left every 15–18 m. When harvesting cereal crops, strips with taller stubble are left. In regions with a large snow cover, snow retention is carried out with tractor snowplows. Snow ridges are cut across the direction of prevailing winds when the snow cover height is more than 12–15 cm, with a distance between them of 4–5 m. After the snowplow passes, the snow thickness between ridges should remain at least 5 cm. Blackening of snow ridges with soil is not recommended.

Well-executed snow retention promotes deeper (up to 1 m) moistening of the soil.

To accumulate moisture, retention of meltwater is also used, which protects the upper fertile soil layer from washing away. For this, deep ridged autumn plowing across slopes, cutting of earthen ridges and holes, and construction of dams or barriers in places of water runoff with diversion to fields are used.

Sowing

Seed preparation

Full-weight, mature, and healthy seeds are used as sowing material, which allow obtaining uniform seedlings and ensuring a high yield. Germination and germination energy of seeds that have not completed post-harvest maturation can be increased by heating in the sun for 5 days or in grain dryers.

The mass of 1000 seeds for common wheat is 35–40 g, for durum — more than 40 g. Growth force should be at least 80% for common wheat and at least 70% for durum. At large agricultural enterprises, it is advisable to use 2–3 zoned varieties differing in vegetation duration. The recommended ratio of mid-season and mid-late varieties for dry steppe is 1:1.5; for moderately arid steppe — 1.5:1; for forest-steppe — 2:1.

According to experimental data of the RIA of the Northeast, air-thermal treatment on average over 3 years increased yield by 2.6 c/ha. The Ural RIA proposed heating dry seeds in grain dryers at a heat carrier temperature of 6 °C and seed temperature of 4 °C for 3 hours. Germination energy increased by 5–30%, laboratory and field germination — by 5–10%, yield — by 3–4 c/ha.

Against common and loose smut, seeds are dressed before sowing similarly to winter wheat seeds.

For dressing seeds against diseases, the following are used:

loose smut — Dividend (30 g/l difenoconazole), Dividend Star (30 g/l difenoconazole + 6.3 g/l cyproconazole), Colfugo Super (200 g/l carbendazim), Colfugo Duplet (200 g/l carbendazim + 170 g/l carboxin), Vitavax (375 g/kg carboxin + 375 g/kg thiram), Ferazim (500 g/l carbendazim), Fenoram Super (470 g/kg carboxin + 230 g/kg thiram), Vitaros (198 g/kg carboxin + 198 g/l thiram), Baytan Universal (150 g/kg triadimenol + 25 g/kg imazalil + 20 g/kg fuberidazole), Raxil (500 g/l thiram + 15 g/l tebuconazole), Agat-25K (titer 50–80 billion before inactivation);
common bunt — Dividend (30 g/l difenoconazole), Dividend Star (30 g/l difenoconazole + 6.3 g/l cyproconazole), Colfugo Super (200 g/l carbendazim), Colfugo Duplet (200 g/l carbendazim + 170 g/l carboxin), Vitavax (375 g/kg carboxin + 375 g/kg thiram), Ferazim (500 g/l carbendazim), Fenoram Super (470 g/kg carboxin + 230 g/kg thiram), Vitaros (198 g/kg carboxin + 198 g/l thiram), Baytan Universal (150 g/kg triadimenol + 25 g/kg imazalil + 20 g/kg fuberidazole), Raxil (500 g/l thiram + 15 g/l tebuconazole), Vincit Forte (37.5 g/l flutriafol + 25 g/l thiabendazole + 15 g/l flutriafol), Agat-25K (titer 50–80 billion before inactivation);
dwarf bunt — Dividend (30 g/l difenoconazole);
Helminthosporium root rot — Dividend (30 g/l difenoconazole), Dividend Star (30 g/l difenoconazole + 6.3 g/l cyproconazole), Colfugo Super (200 g/l carbendazim), Colfugo Duplet (200 g/l carbendazim + 170 g/l carboxin), Vitavax (375 g/kg carboxin + 375 g/kg thiram), Fenoram Super (470 g/kg carboxin + 230 g/kg thiram), Vitaros (198 g/kg carboxin + 198 g/l thiram), Baytan Universal (150 g/kg triadimenol + 25 g/kg imazalil + 20 g/kg fuberidazole), Raxil (500 g/l thiram + 15 g/l tebuconazole), Premis Dvesti (200 g/l triticonazole), Vincit Forte (37.5 g/l flutriafol + 25 g/l thiabendazole + 15 g/l flutriafol), Fitosporin-M (Bacillus subtilis strain 26D, titer at least 2 billion living cells and spores/g), Vermikulen (Bacillus subtilis strain Ch13, titer at least 5 billion spores/g), Pseudobacterin-2 (titer 50 billion), Agat-25K (titer 50–80 billion before inactivation);
Fusarium root rot — Dividend (30 g/l difenoconazole), Dividend Star (30 g/l difenoconazole + 6.3 g/l cyproconazole), Colfugo Super (200 g/l carbendazim), Colfugo Duplet (200 g/l carbendazim + 170 g/l carboxin), Vitavax (375 g/kg carboxin + 375 g/kg thiram), Ferazim (500 g/l carbendazim), Fenoram Super (470 g/kg carboxin + 230 g/kg thiram), Vitaros (198 g/kg carboxin + 198 g/l thiram), Baytan Universal (150 g/kg triadimenol + 25 g/kg imazalil + 20 g/kg fuberidazole), Raxil (500 g/l thiram + 15 g/l tebuconazole), Vincit Forte (37.5 g/l flutriafol + 25 g/l thiabendazole + 15 g/l flutriafol), Fitosporin-M (Bacillus subtilis strain 26D, titer at least 2 billion living cells and spores/g), Vermikulen (Bacillus subtilis strain Ch13, titer at least 5 billion spores/g), Pseudobacterin-2 (titer 50 billion), Agat-25K (titer 50–80 billion before inactivation);
root rots — Colfugo Super (200 g/l carbendazim), Colfugo Duplet (200 g/l carbendazim + 170 g/l carboxin), Raxil (500 g/l thiram + 15 g/l tebuconazole);
cercosporellosis — Colfugo Super (200 g/l carbendazim), Ferazim (500 g/l carbendazim), Pseudobacterin-2 (titer 50 billion);
Cercosporella foot rot — Premis Dvesti (200 g/l triticonazole);
septoria — Dividend (30 g/l difenoconazole), Dividend Star (30 g/l difenoconazole + 6.3 g/l cyproconazole), Raxil (500 g/l thiram + 15 g/l tebuconazole), Premis Dvesti (200 g/l triticonazole);
seed molding — Dividend (30 g/l difenoconazole), Dividend Star (30 g/l difenoconazole + 6.3 g/l cyproconazole), Colfugo Duplet (200 g/l carbendazim + 170 g/l carboxin), Vitavax (375 g/kg carboxin + 375 g/kg thiram), Fenoram Super (470 g/kg carboxin + 230 g/kg thiram), Vitaros (198 g/kg carboxin + 198 g/l thiram), Baytan Universal (150 g/kg triadimenol + 25 g/kg imazalil + 20 g/kg fuberidazole), Raxil (500 g/l thiram + 15 g/l tebuconazole), Premis Dvesti (200 g/l triticonazole), Fitosporin-M (Bacillus subtilis strain 26D, titer at least 2 billion living cells and spores/g);
powdery mildew — Colfugo Duplet (200 g/l carbendazim + 170 g/l carboxin), Baytan Universal (150 g/kg triadimenol + 25 g/kg imazalil + 20 g/kg fuberidazole), Vincit Forte (37.5 g/l flutriafol + 25 g/l thiabendazole + 15 g/l flutriafol), Fitosporin-M (Bacillus subtilis strain 26D, titer at least 2 billion living cells and spores/g);
snow mold — Raxil (500 g/l thiram + 15 g/l tebuconazole), Vincit Forte (37.5 g/l flutriafol + 25 g/l thiabendazole + 15 g/l flutriafol), Agat-25K (titer 50–80 billion before inactivation);
rust — Vincit Forte (37.5 g/l flutriafol + 25 g/l thiabendazole + 15 g/l flutriafol).

Sowing dates

Spring wheat is the crop with the earliest sowing date. Delay in sowing in most regions leads to reduced yield.

Table. Influence of sowing dates on spring wheat yield.

Experimental station	Yield (c/ha) when sowing
Experimental station	at first date	at second date	at third date
Tula (Tula Oblast)	37.8	31.7	29.0
Gorky (Nizhny Novgorod Oblast)	28.7	26.8	21.6
Ural RIA (Sverdlovsk Oblast)	36.2	34.2	26.2
Solikamsk (Perm Oblast)	27.0	24.3	20.7
Kushinskaya (Novosibirsk Oblast)	11.0	11.8	8.8
Krasnoyarsk (Krasnoyarsk Krai)	13.2	15.2	14.3
All-Russian Research Institute of Grain Farming (Akmola Oblast, Kazakhstan)	8.2	15.4	15.7

Early sowing dates in the Non-Chernozem zone and in the north of the Central Chernozem zone reduce damage by Fusarium and rust, are less damaged by Hessian and Swedish flies, and suffer less from frosts in autumn. For wheat seeds, Fusarium is most dangerous at soil temperature around 2 °C, whereas damage at 7–10 °C is significantly lower. Mass flight of Swedish and Hessian flies begins with the onset of stable warm weather. In central oblasts and in the South and Southeast, early sowings manage to form a powerful and deeply penetrating root system before drought, providing plants with moisture from lower layers.

Delay in sowing by 5 days leads to a decrease in field germination by 10–15%, by 10 days — by 20%.

In Siberia, the Trans-Urals, and northern Kazakhstan, sowing dates differ. In taiga, sub-taiga, and northern forest-steppe regions, wheat is sown at early and compressed dates.

In the southern forest-steppe and steppe, climatic features are taken into account when determining sowing dates. Snow cover in these zones is less thick than in northern regions and leaves fields early. The soil thaws slowly, and the upper layer dries out strongly under the influence of constant strong winds. After snow leaves the fields, about a month passes before the optimal sowing date. Here there are often returns of prolonged cold spells and spring frosts. Stable warming of the soil at sowing depth occurs at the beginning of May, in some years — at the end of April. A feature of these regions is a dry spring and early summer, and a wetter second half of summer.

Long-term research by scientific institutions and production experience show that in the entire European part of Russia (and the former USSR), high and stable yields are obtained with early sowing dates, when the soil at sowing depth warms to +5…+6 °C.

However, in the forest-steppe and steppe zone of Western Siberia and northern Kazakhstan, the advantage remains with medium sowing dates, which fall on May 10–25. At the same time, late-ripening varieties give better results at relatively early sowing dates, while early-ripening varieties — at later ones. Such sowing dates bring wheat earing closer to July rains. Due to slower development in the initial phases, late-ripening varieties suffer less from spring drought. They are sown earlier so that grain ripening occurs before autumn frosts. In years with a wet spring, early-ripening and late-ripening varieties at early sowing dates give higher yields, primarily with a cold summer and early autumn frosts.

In Central Asian countries on bogara, in most cases the best results are obtained with autumn sowing dates.

Sowing methods

The optimal sowing methods for spring wheat are narrow-row and cross, which, unlike continuous row sowing, give the greatest resistance to lodging, uniformity of stand, simultaneous ripening, and formation of a greater number of productive ears.

The seeding rate for narrow-row and cross methods is increased by 10–12% to increase the total number of plants per hectare. At the same time, growth and development proceed normally; plants do not crowd each other, developing the greatest productivity. According to experimental institutions of different zones of the country, yield with narrow-row and cross sowing methods is 2–3 c/ha higher than with ordinary row sowing.

When sowing, leaving technological strips can be provided for.

Seeding rates

Spring wheat tillers weakly, so it responds well to increased seeding rates. Rates depend on zone conditions: in arid regions they are lower than in moist ones. For the ordinary row method, approximate seeding rates of spring wheat in various natural zones (at 100% sowing suitability of seeds):

Non-Chernozem zone — 5.5–7.5 million/ha of germinating seeds, or 200–225 kg/ha;
Central Chernozem zone — 5.0–6.5 million/ha of germinating seeds;
forest-steppe regions of the Central Chernozem zone — 6.0–6.5 million/ha of germinating seeds or 180–210 kg/ha;
steppe regions of the South — 4.0–5.0 million/ha of germinating seeds or 130–160 kg/ha;
Southeast — 3.5–5.0 million/ha of germinating seeds or 120–160 kg/ha;
forest-steppe part of Western Siberia — 4.0–6.0 million/ha of germinating seeds;
Eastern Siberia — 4.5–5.0 million/ha of germinating seeds;
Far East — 6.0–6.5 million/ha of germinating seeds or 180–200 kg/ha.

On weedy and low-fertility fields, the seeding rate is increased.

Sowing depth

The sowing depth of spring wheat seeds depends on soil-climatic conditions. With sufficient moisture on heavy, easily silting soils of the Non-Chernozem zone, deep sowing is undesirable, since not all sprouts can break through to the surface, seedlings are sparse, and are more damaged by pests. On heavy and medium soils of the Non-Chernozem zone, seeds are incorporated to a depth of 3–4 cm. In the Central Chernozem zone and northern regions of Siberia — 3–6 cm; in arid regions of Siberia, the Southeast, North Caucasus, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan — 5–8 cm.

Under conditions of a cool, wet spring and good pre-sowing treatment, the incorporation depth is reduced for rapid germination and uniform seedlings. In a dry spring, the depth is increased.

Crop care

Care of spring wheat crops consists of rolling, harrowing, and control of weeds, diseases, pests, and lodging.

In arid regions, in a dry spring, and in all regions of the country after sowing, rolling is carried out with ring-spur rollers to improve the flow of moisture from deep soil layers to the seeds. In more moist conditions, the technique is also useful for better warming of the soil and emergence of uniform seedlings.

On heavy silting soils, a crust may form that prevents emergence. To destroy it, harrowing is carried out before emergence or after emergence. In pre-emergence harrowing, the loosening depth is set so as not to damage seed sprouts. Harrowing after emergence is performed after good rooting of plants; for this, tooth harrows or rotary hoes are used. Harrowing is carried out across the sowing.

Plant protection system

Spring wheat is characterized by slow growth in the first vegetation period and weak tillering, so its seedlings can be suppressed by weeds. Weed control begins as early as possible and ends before the stem elongation phase. Among herbicides, herbicides of the 2,4-D group and 2M-4X give good results at a consumption rate of 1 kg/ha of a.i. Spraying with preparation solutions is carried out at the tillering phase. The chemical weed control method reduces crop infestation by 2–3 times and increases yield by 2–4 c/ha. When undersowing leguminous grasses under wheat, 2M-4XM is used at a dose of 2–2.5 kg/ha of a.i.

Weed control is combined with protection of crops from the Swedish fly. For this, 1 kg/ha of chlorophos or 1.5 kg/ha of a.i. metaphos is added to the herbicide rate.

During vegetation, if foci of disease spread or pest distribution are detected in crops, appropriate measures are taken taking into account harmfulness thresholds and the phytosanitary state of crops. Characteristic diseases of spring wheat include: brown and stem rust, powdery mildew, snow mold, root rots. Characteristic pests include: grain beetles and flea beetles, Hessian and Swedish flies, thrips, grain cutworm, and sunn pest.

To combat lodging of crops, spraying with the preparation tur at a dose of 2–3 kg/ha of a.i. at the tillering–stem elongation phases, or other retardants, is used. To increase yield and grain quality, top dressing with nitrogen fertilizers is carried out.

Approved preparations for disease control

To combat diseases of spring wheat, the following preparations are used:

brown rust — Impact (125 or 250 g/l flutriafol), Rex S (125 g/l epoxiconazole), Rex Duo (310 g/l thiophanate-methyl + 187 g/l epoxiconazole), Bayleton (250 g/kg), Tilt (250 g/l propiconazole);
stem rust — Impact (125 or 250 g/l flutriafol), Rex S (125 g/l epoxiconazole), Rex Duo (310 g/l thiophanate-methyl + 187 g/l epoxiconazole), Tilt (250 g/l propiconazole);
yellow rust — Impact (125 or 250 g/l flutriafol);
yellow spot — Rex Duo (310 g/l thiophanate-methyl + 187 g/l epoxiconazole);
powdery mildew — Impact (125 or 250 g/l flutriafol), Alto (400 g/l cyproconazole), Rex S (125 g/l epoxiconazole), Rex Duo (310 g/l thiophanate-methyl + 187 g/l epoxiconazole), Bayleton (250 g/kg), Tilt (250 g/l propiconazole);
septoria — Impact (125 or 250 g/l flutriafol), Alto (400 g/l cyproconazole), Rex Duo (310 g/l thiophanate-methyl + 187 g/l epoxiconazole), Tilt (250 g/l propiconazole);
septoria leaf spot — Rex Duo (310 g/l thiophanate-methyl + 187 g/l epoxiconazole);
Fusarium head blight — Impact (125 or 250 g/l flutriafol), Alto (400 g/l cyproconazole);
net blotch — Impact (125 or 250 g/l flutriafol), Rex S (125 g/l epoxiconazole);
Fusarium spot — Rex S (125 g/l epoxiconazole), Rex Duo (310 g/l thiophanate-methyl + 187 g/l epoxiconazole);
Fusarium root rot — Fundazol (500 g/kg benomyl);
Helminthosporium spot — Alto (400 g/l cyproconazole), Tilt (250 g/l propiconazole);
cercosporellosis — Alto (400 g/l cyproconazole), Fundazol (500 g/kg benomyl);
epiphytotic brown, yellow, stem rust — Alto (400 g/l cyproconazole).

Approved preparations for pest control

To combat pests, the following preparations are used:

bug — Rogor-S (400 g/l), Fastac (100 g/l), Decis (25 g/l), Actara (250 g/l), Sumithion (500 g/l);
sunn pest — Rogor-S (400 g/l), Fastac (100 g/l), Decis (25 g/l), Actara (250 g/l), Sumithion (500 g/l);
cereal leaf beetle — Rogor-S (400 g/l), Kinmiks (50 g/l), Decis (25 g/l), Zolon (350 g/l), Actara (250 g/l);
meadow moth — Zolon (350 g/l);
cereal flies — Rogor-S (400 g/l), Decis (25 g/l), Bazudin (600 g/l);
aphids — Rogor-S (400 g/l), Fufanon (570 g/l), Kinmiks (50 g/l), Decis (25 g/l);
thrips — Rogor-S (400 g/l), Fufanon (570 g/l), Kinmiks (50 g/l), Decis (25 g/l);
grain beetle — Kinmiks (50 g/l), Bazudin (600 g/l);
grain beetles — Decis (25 g/l);
grain cutworm — Decis (25 g/l);
flea beetles — Kinmiks (50 g/l);
leafhoppers — Kinmiks (50 g/l).

Herbicides

Approved herbicides for weed control in spring wheat crops:

2,4-D (688 g/l), Agritox (500 g/l), Agroxon (750 g/l) — against annual dicotyledonous weeds, spraying at the tillering phase before stem elongation;
Aurora (500 g/kg) — against annual dicotyledonous weeds, including catchweed bedstraw and others resistant to 2,4-D; spraying at the tillering phase and early growth phases of weeds;
Bazagran (480 g/l), Bazagran M (250 + 125 g/l) — against annual dicotyledonous weeds, including those resistant to 2,4-D; spraying at the tillering phase before stem elongation;
Banvel (480 g/l) — against annual dicotyledonous weeds, including those resistant to 2,4-D, some perennial dicotyledonous weeds (thistle); used separately or in mixtures with 2,4-D, spraying at the tillering phase, 2–4 leaves in annual and 15 cm height in perennial weeds;
Bromotril (225 g/l) — annual dicotyledonous weeds, including those resistant to 2,4-D; spraying from the beginning of tillering at 2–4 leaves in weeds;
Granstar (750 g/kg) — annual dicotyledonous weeds, including those resistant to 2,4-D, field thistle; spraying at the tillering phase;
Dialen (342 + 34.2 g/l) and Dialen Super (344 + 120 g/l) — annual dicotyledonous weeds, including those resistant to 2,4-D, as well as sow thistle species; spraying at the tillering phase before stem elongation;
Difesan (344 + 18.8 g/l), Kortes (750 g/kg) — annual dicotyledonous weeds, including those resistant to 2,4-D, some perennial dicotyledonous weeds; spraying at the tillering phase;
Laren (600 g/kg), Sekator (125 + 50 + 125 g/kg) — annual dicotyledonous weeds, including those resistant to 2,4-D and 2M-4X, some perennial dicotyledonous weeds; spraying at the tillering phase at 2–4 leaves in annual weeds or at the rosette phase in perennial weeds;
Lontrel-300 (300 g/l) — against sow thistle, chamomile, and knotweed species; spraying at the tillering phase before stem elongation;
Luvaram (610 g/l) — annual dicotyledonous weeds; spraying at the tillering phase before stem elongation;
Puma Super (100 + 27 g/l) — against green foxtail, wild oat, millet (barnyardgrass); spraying from the 2-leaf phase to tillering;
Staran (200 g/l) — annual dicotyledonous weeds, including those resistant to 2,4-D and 2M-4X, perennial root-sprouting weeds (field bindweed); spraying at the tillering phase before stem elongation;
Topic (80 + 20 g/l) — against wild oat and foxtail; spraying at the 2–3 leaf phase of weeds, regardless of crop phase.

Harvesting

In the 1980s in Siberia, due to unfavorable weather conditions during harvesting, senication was used at the dough stage of grain at a moisture content of 40–45%.

Senication is the acceleration of crop ripening by treatment with a 20–30% ammonium nitrate solution or other preparations at a rate of 100 l/ha of working solution.

The choice of harvesting method depends on weather conditions, the state of the stand, and the degree of crop ripening. Common spring wheat easily shatters when ripening, so two-phase harvesting at the wax ripeness phase or single-phase harvesting at the full ripeness phase is completed in a short time.

Durum wheat is more resistant to shattering, but overstanding on the root can lead to breaking off of whole ears. Single-phase harvesting is carried out at the full ripeness phase, two-phase — in the middle of wax ripeness.

In regions of Eastern Siberia and northern Kazakhstan, two-phase harvesting makes it possible to complete harvesting before the onset of cold weather and avoid frost damage to grain.

Features of cultivation under irrigation

The experience of research institutions and advanced farms shows the high responsiveness of spring wheat to irrigation, especially durum. At the Ershov Experimental Station of Irrigated Agriculture (Saratov Oblast), on average over 12 years, the yield under irrigation was about 4.5 t/ha, in some years — up to 5.0 t/ha. In Saratov Oblast, yield reaches 5.7 t/ha; in Volgograd Oblast — 7.3 t/ha.

Crop rotation

The best predecessors of spring wheat under irrigated farming are perennial grasses, grain legumes, row crops, and winter crops.

Fertilizers

Under irrigation, fertilizers are of great importance; they increase yield and improve grain quality.

According to experimental data from scientific institutions, it is possible to sharply increase yield and protein content in grain by applying high rates (up to 120 kg/ha) of nitrogen. To avoid lodging of wheat, nitrogen fertilizers are applied in 2–3 applications — before sowing, at the tillering and flowering phases.

The main part of phosphorus and potassium fertilizers is applied for plowing; 10% of phosphorus — at sowing in rows (P₂O); 50–60% of nitrogen — for pre-sowing treatment; the remaining amount — in top dressings at the tillering and grain filling phases, taking into account leaf diagnostics results.

According to generalized data of the Geographical Network, the optimal fertilizer rates are N_60-120P_40-90K_30-60.

Soil cultivation

Soil cultivation under irrigation is similar to cultivation without irrigation: it is aimed at creating a deep arable layer, clearing fields of weeds, and accumulating and preserving soil moisture.

Irrigation

Under irrigation conditions, the timing, number, and rates of irrigations are important in the agricultural technology of spring wheat. The most critical phases in the consumption of moisture and nutrients are tillering and flowering. Insufficient water supply during these periods leads to poor grain filling, a decrease in the number of grains per ear, and the mass of 1000 seeds. The optimal irrigation regime in regions of insufficient moisture, for example, in the Volga region, Kazakhstan, and steppe regions of Siberia, is maintaining moisture in the root-inhabited layer at about 70% of the lowest moisture capacity.

Optimal soil moisture in the 0–60 cm layer depending on vegetation phases:

at the tillering phase — 65–70% of lowest moisture capacity;
from stem elongation to earing — 75–80% of lowest moisture capacity;
at the grain filling phase — 65–70% of lowest moisture capacity.

Spring wheat is responsive to autumn moisture-charging irrigation, especially for the steppe and dry-steppe zones and after perennial grasses. The water consumption rate on fields with deep groundwater occurrence is 800–1000 m³/ha; on solonetzic and saline soils — 1000–1300 m³/ha.

The greatest contribution to yield increase is provided by vegetation irrigations. The RIA of the Southeast recommends carrying out five irrigations in very dry years: first — at the tillering phase, second and third — before earing, fourth and fifth — during grain formation. In wetter years with good precipitation distribution, the number of irrigations is reduced to two or three: first — at the tillering phase; second — before the beginning of earing; third — before the beginning of grain filling.

The irrigation method depends on the mechanical composition of the soil and terrain. On heavy soils with slow water absorption, the best results are obtained by irrigation along strips or sown furrows. On lighter soils with uneven terrain, sprinkling is used. Water consumption with surface methods is 700–800 m³ of water per 1 ha; with sprinkling — 600–650 m³/ha.

Sowing

Sowing is carried out at early and compressed dates. Delay in sowing leads to reduced yield due to poorer rooting, weak tillering, and severe damage by the Swedish fly and other pests.

The optimal sowing method is narrow-row. Seeding rate is 4–5 million/ha of germinating seeds. Incorporation depth is 3–4 cm.

One of the conditions for obtaining high yields on irrigated lands is the selection of varieties resistant to lodging, diseases, and pests. Under irrigation conditions, among common wheat varieties, Saratovskaya 44 and Kyrgyzskiy polukarlik are more suitable. Among durum — Kharkovskaya 46, Almaz, and Melyanopus 26.

For cultivation of spring wheat under irrigation in the Volga region, western Kazakhstan, and other arid regions, liman irrigation is used. Limans are depressions in the steppe flooded by meltwater in spring. In Saratov Oblast, on liman irrigation plots, spring wheat yield has been harvested for many years at 2.2–2.5 t/ha.

Resource-saving intensive cultivation technology

The resource-saving intensive technology of spring wheat cultivation provides for efficient use of resources, compliance with environmental production, and application of achievements of science and world practice. Crops under this technology are placed after the best moisture-provided predecessors; a set of measures is used to accumulate moisture in the soil and rationally use it; balanced content of nutrients in the soil is ensured; and integrated plant protection from diseases, pests, and weeds is carried out with emphasis on agronomic and biological methods of plant protection.

Resource saving is one of the main requirements of the technology, along with rational use of machinery and observance of technological discipline. Intensive technology provides for obtaining 2.0–2.2 t/ha of high-quality grain after clean fallow and 1.5–1.8 t/ha after other predecessors.

A requirement of intensive technology is also agrochemical and phytosanitary survey of fields with compilation of a field passport.

In Kurgan Oblast, with the use of intensive technology, spring wheat yield was 2.9 t/ha; in the experimental farm of the Siberian RIA "Novouralskoye" — 2.0 t/ha.

Predecessors

In the steppe zone of Siberia, the Trans-Urals, and northern Kazakhstan, spring wheat crops are placed after clean fallow or as the second crop after fallow. In the forest-steppe zone — also after corn, peas, and perennial grasses. In the Volga region and the south of the Urals — after black fallow, grain legumes, perennial grasses, and row crops. Durum wheat crops in crop rotation are placed only after clean fallow or after a layer of perennial leguminous grasses.

Soil cultivation system

The main task is maximum accumulation and preservation of moisture in the arable layer and destruction of weeds.

Soil cultivation depends on the preceding crop, field weed infestation, and soil-climatic conditions. It is carried out in accordance with zonal farming systems, differentiated by crop rotation fields taking into account resource saving, aimed at reproduction of soil fertility.

In the steppe zone of Siberia, the Trans-Urals, and northern Kazakhstan, clean fallows are treated with flat-cutters KPSH-5, KPSH-9 or other non-moldboard implements. In the forest-steppe zone of Siberia, the Volga region, and the south of the Urals — with moldboard plows PTK-9-35, PN-8-35. On light soils, the depth of flat-cut treatment is 10–14 cm; on heavy soils in granulometric composition — up to 25–27 cm. Plowing depth is respectively 20–22 cm or 25–27 cm.

On fields infested with wild oat, in autumn shallow treatment is carried out with needle implements BIG-3A to a depth of 4–6 cm to incorporate weed seeds. In spring, stubble is harrowed with a needle harrow; autumn plowing — with a tooth harrow. In summer, 3–4 shallow fallow treatments are carried out: in the steppe zone — with flat-cut cultivators, in the forest-steppe — with cultivators with knife working bodies.

For coulisse fallow, in the first ten days of July mustard is sown as coulisses in two rows with seeders SKN-3, SZS-2.1 to a depth of 4–5 cm every 8–12 m across the direction of prevailing winds. The last treatment of clean fallow is carried out in August–September to a depth of 20–27 cm or 12–14 cm depending on local conditions.

When placing spring wheat crops after non-fallow predecessors in the steppe zone, treatment is carried out with flat-cutters (KPSH-9) to a depth of 12–25 cm depending on moisture and granulometric composition. In the forest-steppe zone — plowing to 25–30 cm with plows PTK-9-35, PN-8-35 followed by treatment of the semi-fallow type. On slope lands in the late autumn period, slotting is carried out across the slope to a depth of 30–35 cm.

In spring, when physical ripeness is reached, moisture closure, pre-sowing treatment, and sowing are carried out.

Pre-sowing treatment on stubble backgrounds consists of harrowing with needle implements, for example, BIG-3A, ZBZSS-1.0 to a depth of 4–5 cm or disk harrows with flat disks LDG-10, LDG-15. On moldboard autumn plowing — with tooth harrows ZBZSS-1.0 and cultivators with knife working bodies. After harrowing and on loose soils after harrowing, rolling is carried out. Fields clean of weeds can be sown without pre-sowing treatment using seeder-cultivators, for example, SZS-2.1.

Pre-sowing cultivation is carried out with cultivators KTS-10-01, KPE-3.8A, KPS-4, KSHP-8. Fields infested with wild oat are treated with harrows LDG-10, LDG-15 to sowing depth 5–6 cm in a unit with harrows ZBZSS-1.0.

To reduce the number of mechanical treatments and preserve moisture, herbicides are used: 2,4-D — 2 kg/ha two weeks before sowing coulisses.

Snow retention is carried out with wide-cut snowplows SVU-2.6-1 or ZSVU-2.6. Snow ridges are cut when snow cover height is more than 12–15 cm. In the steppe part of Siberia, the distance between ridges should be 3–5 m; in the Volga region and Urals — 5–8 m. Ridges are placed across the direction of prevailing winter winds. In years with a wet autumn (with productive moisture in the meter layer of 80–90 mm), it is recommended to accumulate at least 40 cm of snow; in years with a dry autumn (30–50 mm of productive moisture) — 50–55 cm.

Fertilization

Fertilizer rates are determined taking into account agrochemical soil survey and planned yield. On average, on fallow fields P50-60 is applied; after non-fallow predecessors — N₂0-30 and P20-40. In the steppe part of the Urals and Siberia, K10-20 is also applied. Fertilizers are incorporated to a depth of 10–16 cm.

Phosphorus-potassium fertilizers are applied for the main soil treatment. Phosphorus additionally — in rows at sowing P10-20.

To improve grain quality, foliar top dressing with nitrogen fertilizers is carried out at the earing–grain filling phase. The consumption rate is determined based on leaf diagnostics results. During flowering — the beginning of grain filling, top dressing is carried out by aerial spraying with a 30% urea solution.

Sowing

Seeds should be large, leveled, of the first class of sowing conditions, with growth force of at least 80%, of zoned or promising varieties responsive to a high agronomic background and resistant to lodging. For example, strong wheat varieties Saratovskaya 29, Saratovskaya 39, Saratovskaya 42, Saratovskaya 46, Novosibirskaya 67, Tselinnaya 20, Omskaya 9, Irtyshanka 10; durum wheat varieties Almaz, Kharkovskaya 46, Bezenchukskaya 139. The most valuable varieties in quality include Moskovskaya 35 and Kutulukskaya.

Intensive technology provides for the use of at least 2 varieties. At the same time, the ratio of mid-season and mid-late varieties should be for the dry steppe zone — 1:1.5; in arid and moderately arid steppe — 1.5:1; in forest-steppe — 2.3:1.

Before sowing, dressing is carried out; it can be combined with treatment with retardants to increase resistance to lodging. Dressing is carried out with moistening with pentiuran — 2 kg/t of seeds, Vitavax 75% WP — 2.5–3 kg/t, Fundazol 50% WP — 3 kg/t, granosan — 2 kg/t of seeds.

Sowing is carried out at optimal dates taking into account natural conditions, variety characteristics, soil treatment methods, and field weed infestation.

Seeding rates are determined taking into account soil-climatic conditions, variety, fertility, sowing dates, and field weed infestation. Approximate rates:

for steppe — 2.5–3.5 million/ha of germinating seeds;
in forest-steppe — 3.5–4.5 million/ha of germinating seeds;
in Eastern Siberia — 4.5–6.0 million/ha of germinating seeds.

Sowing depth — 5–6 cm; in the steppe zone — up to 8 cm. Seeds should be incorporated into the moist soil layer on a firm seedbed. For sowing, stubble seeders SZS-2.1, SZS-14 or disk seeders SZP-3.6A, SZ-3.6A are used.

If necessary, a technological track is left taking into account the track width of machines for crop care.

Crop care

Herbicides are used to control weeds. Approximate harmfulness threshold: more than 2 root-sprouting weeds per 1 m²; more than 15 wild oat plants (Avena fatua) per 1 m²; more than 75 green foxtail plants (Setaria viridis) per 1 m²; more than 20–30 plants of other annual weeds.

To combat wild oat, Roundup (1 l/ha) is used in fallow, combining spraying with cultivation, Avadex BV and triallate (40%) at a consumption rate of 2.5–3.5 l/ha in spring for moisture closure and pre-sowing treatment.

Post-emergence anti-wild oat preparations:

Illoxan (36% emulsion concentrate), consumption rate 3–4 l/ha;
Suffix, consumption rate 6–7.5 l/ha;
Suffix BV, consumption rate 2.5–3 l/ha.

However, treatment with these preparations gives a smaller yield increase than the use of Avadex BV. When crops are infested with foxtail and barnyardgrass, Illoxan (3 l/ha) is used during the formation of 2–4 leaves in weeds.

In the control of dicotyledonous weeds, salts and esters of 2,4-D are used at the tillering phase before stem elongation. Against dicotyledonous weeds resistant to herbicides of the 2,4-D group, Dialen, Kafpon, and Bazagran are used.

To increase resistance to lodging, crops at the beginning of the stem elongation phase are treated with the preparation tur at a consumption rate of 3–6 l per 1 ha or other retardants.

Chemical protection of spring wheat crops from diseases and pests is carried out taking into account the phytosanitary state. Against rust, powdery mildew, root rots, and smut diseases, crops are treated with zineb, polycarbacin — consumption rate 4 kg/ha; Fundazol, Bayleton, Tilt — consumption rate 0.5 kg/ha.

Against sunn pest, grain beetles, grain cutworm, thrips, and cereal flies, chlorophos (30%) is used — 1–1.5 kg/ha, metaphos — 0.5–1 kg/ha, vofatox — 1.5–2 kg/ha, phosphamide (40%) — 0.7–1.5 kg/ha.

Harvesting

The harvesting method depends on the height and density of the stand and crop weed infestation. In crops with an even stand, clean of weeds, direct combining is used. With uneven ripening — two-phase (separate) method. Harvesting is carried out at optimal dates with minimal losses, avoiding overstanding on the root and prolonged lying in windrows.

Spring wheat varieties

Common spring wheat varieties

Saratovskaya 29. The variety was developed at the RI of Agriculture of the Southeast. High-yielding, mid-season, drought-resistant, cold-resistant. Resistant to lodging and disease damage. Baking qualities excellent. Belongs to strong wheat. Zoned in the Southeast, Siberia, the Volga region, the Southern Urals, Altai Krai, and Kazakhstan.

Moskovskaya 35. The variety was developed at the RI of Agriculture of the Central Regions of the Non-Chernozem Zone. Mid-season, resistance to brown rust and drought average, resistant to lodging. Baking qualities good. High-yielding, plastic. Belongs to valuable wheat varieties. Zoned in the Non-Chernozem zone, Middle Volga and Ural regions.

Priokskaya. Mid-season high-productivity variety. Resistant to lodging. Resistance to brown rust, loose smut, and other diseases average. Baking qualities good; belongs to valuable wheat. Zoned in the Central, Volga-Vyatka, Middle Volga, Ural, and Far Eastern regions.

Albidum 28. Mid-season drought-resistant variety, resistant to lodging; resistance to disease damage average. Baking qualities good. Zoned in the North Caucasus, Lower Volga region, and Urals.

Ivolga. Mid-season high-yielding variety, resistant to lodging and diseases. Baking qualities satisfactory and lower. Zoned in the Non-Chernozem and Central Chernozem zones.

Simbirka. Mid-season high-yielding variety, resistant to lodging. Baking qualities excellent. Belongs to strong wheat. Zoned in the Central, Volga-Vyatka, Middle Volga, Ural, East Siberian, and Far Eastern regions.

Enita. Mid-season high-yielding variety, resistant to lodging. Baking qualities average. Resistant to disease damage and drought. Zoned in the Central, Northwestern, Volga-Vyatka, and Middle Volga regions.

Omskaya 9 (v. lutescens). The variety was developed at the Siberian RIA. Mid-season, resistance to loose smut and rust average. Baking qualities good. High-yielding, plastic. Zoned in Omsk Oblast and Krasnodar Krai, and northern Kazakhstan.

Novosibirskaya 67 (v. albldum). The variety was developed by the Institute of Cytology and Genetics of the Siberian Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences and the Siberian RI of Plant Production and Breeding. Resistant to lodging and shattering. Mid-season, drought-resistant. Baking qualities excellent; belongs to strong wheats. High-yielding. Zoned in Altai and Krasnoyarsk Krais; Kurgan, Novosibirsk, Omsk, Orenburg, and Tyumen oblasts.

Tselinnaya 20 (v. crythrospermum). The variety was developed at the All-Union RI of Grain Farming. Mid-late, resistant to shattering and lodging. Resistant to loose smut and rust. Baking qualities good and excellent. Zoned in Altai Krai and Chelyabinsk Oblast.

Durum spring wheat varieties

Kharkovskaya 46. The variety was developed at the Ukrainian RI of Plant Production, Breeding and Genetics. Mid-season, high-yielding, drought-resistant, responsive to irrigation, relatively resistant to loose smut, resistant to lodging and shattering. Pasta qualities good and excellent. Zoned in Siberia, the Urals, the North Caucasus, the Central Chernozem zone, the Volga region, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine.

Bezenchukskaya 139. Mid-season high-productivity variety, resistant to lodging and drought. Weakly affected by brown rust. Pasta qualities good. Zoned in the Central Chernozem, Middle Volga, Lower Volga, and Ural regions.

Step 3. Mid-season variety; resistance to loose smut and brown rust high. Moderately susceptible to common bunt, root rots, and septoria. Pasta qualities good. Zoned in the Central Chernozem zone and the Volga region.

Almaz (v. leucurum). The variety was developed at the Siberian RIA. Mid-season. Resistant to lodging. Moderately resistant to loose smut and brown rust. Pasta qualities good. High-yielding. Zoned in Omsk and Kurgan oblasts, Tatarstan, Altai Krai, and eastern Kazakhstan.

References

1. Kolomeichenko V. V. (2007). Crop Production/Textbook. Moscow: Agrobusinesscenter.

2. Vavilov P. P., Gritsenko V. V., Kuznetsov V. S. et al. (1986). Crop Production. Ed. Vavilov P. P. 5th ed., revised and enlarged. Moscow: Agropromizdat.