Winter barley
Economic importance
There is little protein in the grain of winter barley and a lot of starch, which allows it to be used as a raw material for the brewing industry. Winter barleys are almost all multi-row.
It is one of the best fodder crops.
In areas with conditions favorable for barley cultivation, winter barley has a higher yield compared to spring barley, which is associated with better use of moisture in autumn and spring. Due to early harvesting, it allows the use of catch crops.
In crop rotations saturated with winter crops, other winter crops are sown after barley, since after its harvest there is enough time for semi-fallow soil tillage.
Cultivation areas and yield
Winter barley is cultivated in areas with mild winters, since its varieties have lower winter hardiness than winter wheat. The main sown areas of winter barley are concentrated in the North Caucasus, Ukraine, and Central Asia. In Azerbaijan, in the low-lying coastal zone of Dagestan, in Kabardino-Balkaria, North Ossetia, Chechnya, and Ingushetia, the areas sown to winter barley significantly exceed those of spring barley. In Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, the areas of winter and spring barley are approximately equal. In the USSR in 1980, the sown area of winter barley was 1.5 million ha.
In 1997, the sown areas in Russia were 490 thousand ha with a yield of 2.7 t/ha. In 2001-2005 — about 600 thousand ha (spring — 9.6 million ha). Barley accounted for 23% of all sown areas of cereal crops in Russia, and winter barley — 1.3%. The gross harvest in 2001-2005 was 2 million t with an average yield of 3.4 t/ha. With high agricultural technology under the conditions of the North Caucasus, the potential yield is 4-5 t/ha.
Due to the need to increase the production of fodder grain crops, the sowing of winter barley, as a more productive crop compared to spring barley, has significantly expanded into areas with mild winters, for example, in southern and western Ukraine and Moldova.
Currently it is cultivated in many countries of the world with mild winters. In the 1990s, the world sown area was 64 million ha (9% of the total sown area of cereals). The gross grain harvest was 150 million t, or 7% of total grain production. The average yield is 2.3 t/ha.
Winter barley significantly surpasses spring barley in yield; in Krasnodar Krai and Crimea it is not inferior to winter wheat. According to data from variety-testing plots in Azerbaijan, on average over 5 years winter barley yielded 31.5 centners/ha of grain, and spring barley — 18.4 centners/ha. In Krasnodar Krai, up to 5-6 t/ha of winter barley grain was obtained.
The higher yields of winter barley compared to spring barley are explained by the fact that the former, in addition to autumn precipitation, makes fuller use of early spring moisture; before the onset of dry southeastern winds, it produces fuller grain than spring barley, which ripens later. The yield of winter barley on average for 1976-1980 in the USSR was 21.4 centners/ha, in 1986-1990 — 3.61 t/ha.
Biological features
Winter barley is less winter-hardy compared to winter wheat and rye. Frosts below -12…-15 °C are dangerous for it. It is more susceptible than winter wheat to unfavorable conditions in early spring. Spring temperature fluctuations are destructive for it. It is resistant to heat.
When warm spring days arrive, winter barley quickly resumes growth. The growing season is 12-16 days shorter than that of spring barley, and 6-10 days shorter than that of winter wheat. Early ripening allows it to avoid the effects of high summer temperatures and droughts.
It is the most drought-resistant crop among the winter cereals of group I, and also surpasses spring barley.
Soil requirements are similar to those of winter wheat.
Vegetation
Growth phases:
- emergence;
- tillering;
- stem elongation;
- heading;
- flowering;
- milk ripeness of grain;
- wax ripeness of grain;
- full ripeness of grain.
Crop rotation
Winter barley is sown after various preceding crops. The best place in crop rotation is clean fallow, occupied and green-manure fallow. In production conditions, it is usually sown after corn, sunflower, sugar beet, and grain legumes. Winter barley gives a good yield after winter wheat following perennial grasses.
In the cotton-growing regions of Azerbaijan, it is sown after cotton.
Fertilizer system
Winter barley responds well to fertilizer. During sowing, superphosphate (P10) is applied, which promotes hardening and overwintering of plants. The greatest frost resistance was observed with the application of superphosphate and potassium fertilizers at rates of P40-50K40-50.
In spring, early top dressing with nitrogen fertilizers is carried out on the crops at a rate of 35-45 kg/ha. In experiments of the Krasnodar RIA, early top dressing with ammonium nitrate at a rate of N30 increased the yield by 0.4 t/ha.
It responds well to organic fertilizers applied in occupied fallow at a rate of 15-20 t/ha.
In the Kuban, the application of N40-60P80K40-60 for the main tillage and N40-60 in early spring top dressing was practiced. The second top dressing was carried out based on the results of stem diagnostics in the stem elongation phase.
Currently, under conditions of intensive cultivation technology, the fertilizer application rate is determined for the planned yield.
Soil tillage system
As in the case of other crops cultivated in southern Russia, the soil tillage system for winter barley should be aimed at preserving and accumulating moisture. Therefore, a surface tillage system using heavy disk harrows and rollers, flat-cutting cultivators, and combined units is preferable.
After grain crops, soil tillage for winter barley begins with stubbling, after which plowing is carried out to the full depth of the arable layer with harrowing. If the soil is very cloddy, immediately after plowing additional tillage is carried out to a fine-clod condition with rolling.
Before sowing, cultivation is performed to the depth of seed placement. When sowing after well-cultivated row crops that are harvested late, plowing can be replaced by cultivation or stubbling with simultaneous harrowing. If the field is weedy or with severe soil compaction, after row crops plowing is carried out with simultaneous harrowing.
Sowing
Seed preparation
For sowing, sorted seeds brought to the highest sowing conditions, corresponding to classes I and II of the sowing standard, are used. Before sowing, treatment is carried out by wet or semi-dry methods against common bunt and loose smut, and root rots.
Treatment is recommended with moistening (10 l of water per 1 t of seeds) using film-forming compounds (Na-CMC, 0.2 kg/t).
Sowing dates
In the steppe regions of the North Caucasus, the optimal sowing time for winter barley is September 1-20; in Crimea — September 15 to October 5; in southern Ukraine and Moldova — September 15-20; in Transcaucasia and Central Asia — late September to the first ten days of October. Approximate sowing dates for winter barley in the North Caucasus: steppe regions — September 1-20, foothills — September 15 to October 5.
Due to weak tillering and poor overwintering with later sowing dates, the yield of winter barley decreases greatly.
Sowing methods
For barley, as a rule, conventional row, narrow-row, and cross sowing methods are used. The best results are obtained with narrow-row sowing.
The optimal sowing depth for winter barley is 4-5 cm. On light soils, in arid conditions the depth is increased; on heavy and moist soils it is decreased. Small seeds are planted at a shallower depth, large seeds at a greater depth.
Seeding rates are similar to those for winter wheat:
- in the North Caucasus and Transcaucasia — 4-4.5 million germinating seeds (160-180 kg);
- in Central Asia under irrigation — 3-3.5 million germinating seeds (120-140 kg/ha);
- on rainfed land — 2-2.5 million/ha germinating seeds (80-100 kg/ha).
When sowing is delayed, the rate is increased. Dense crops overwinter better.
If the topsoil is very dry, immediately after sowing rolling is carried out with ring-spur rollers. When sowing, it is recommended to make technological strips.
Crop care
Winter barley overwinters poorly: snow retention is carried out on the crops; it tolerates stagnant water poorly; in moist regions, crops are not placed in low areas. Excess water must be drained in a timely manner. In the southern arid regions, meltwater retention is carried out.
To break up the soil crust, remove dead plant parts, and create optimal conditions for plant development, harrowing across the rows or diagonally is carried out.
Further crop care consists in destroying weeds. The crops are treated in the tillering phase with the herbicide 2,4-D amine salt at a rate of 0.6-1 kg/ha a.i.
In the tillering phase, it is also recommended to treat with retardants to prevent lodging.
The main diseases of winter barley: powdery mildew, brown rust, Fusarium head blight, root rots. The main pests: ground beetle, cereal leaf beetle, grain aphid, striped flea beetle, cereal flies. Taking into account the threshold of harmfulness against diseases, pests, and weeds, appropriate approved preparations are used. For treatment, domestic sprayers of the types OPSH-15-03, OPSH-15-01, OPM-2001, OPM-2000-2 or foreign ones are used. Working solutions for treatments are prepared on machines, for example, "Premix", SPPR-20; ANZh-12. Working fluid consumption rates are taken according to those recommended for the preparation, or at the rate of 200 l/ha for ground spraying, 50 l/ha for aerial spraying.
Harvesting
Ripening of winter barley occurs earlier than that of winter rye and winter wheat. For harvesting, single-phase and two-phase methods can be used. If harvesting is delayed, when the ear droops and becomes brittle, only the single-phase method is used.
Varieties of winter barley
Most varieties of winter barley belong to six-row fodder types. In Russia, two-row varieties for the brewing industry have been bred.
In the USSR, more than 30 varieties of winter barley were released. The most widespread are varieties belonging to the species Hordeum vulgare (syn. Hordeum satioum Jess.) and to the variety pallidum.
Odessa 46. The variety was bred by the All-Union Breeding and Genetics Institute (VSGI). Early-ripening, winter-hardy, lodging resistance medium, weakly affected by diseases. Released in the Republic of Crimea, Odessa, Lviv, Kherson oblasts, and Moldova.
Pallidum 596. The variety was bred by the Karabakh Scientific Experimental Base of the Academy of Sciences (Azerbaijan). Early-ripening, medium winter-hardy, lodging-resistant. Released in Central Asia, Georgia, and Kyrgyzstan.
Start. The variety was bred by the Krasnodar RIA named after P. P. Lukyanenko. Medium-ripening, high-yielding, winter-hardy, lodging resistance medium. Released in Krasnodar and Stavropol krais, Ukraine, and Moldova.
Highly productive varieties include Bastion, Rostovsky 55, Osnova, and Larets.
List of sources
1. Vavilov P. P., Gritsenko V. V., Kuznetsov V. S., et al. (1986). Plant Growing. Edited by Vavilov P. P. 5th ed., revised and enlarged. Moscow: Agropromizdat.
2. Kolomeichenko V. V. (2007). Plant Growing/Textbook. Moscow: Agrobiznescentr.
3. Niklyaev V. S. (2000). Fundamentals of Agricultural Production Technology. Farming and Plant Growing. Moscow: Bylina.
