Direct Seeding Method for Growing Peppers (Hot and Sweet)

Main Conditions for Applying Direct Seeding

Warm climate with a long growing season. Peppers are of tropical origin and require a long frost‑free period from sowing to harvest for successful development. The optimal temperature for seed germination is 25–30 °C, and for growth and fruiting 20–28 °C (Bosland and Votava, 2012). Therefore, direct sowing in open ground is justified in regions where:

• the frost‑free period lasts at least 120–140 days;
• the average daily temperature during the growing season consistently exceeds 18 °C;
• spring frosts end early and autumn frosts arrive late.

In temperate climates with short summers, direct sowing generally does not produce a full crop. The exception is the earliest‑maturing varieties with a period from emergence to technical ripeness of 85–100 days, but even then the method carries high risks.

Selection of early‑maturing and cold‑tolerant varieties. Not all varieties and hybrids are suitable for direct seeding. Preference is given to early‑ripening and ultra‑early forms that manage to set a crop before cold weather sets in. In warm regions, on the other hand, mid‑season varieties can be used. According to Sundstrom (1992), varieties with vigorous initial growth and uniform fruit ripening are better suited for direct sowing.

Availability of an efficient irrigation system. Pepper seeds germinate slowly, and drying out of the topsoil during this period is fatal for seedlings. Therefore, direct seeding requires either regular watering or planting in conditions where soil moisture is stably maintained (e.g., with drip irrigation and mulching).

Regional Features

In different parts of the world, direct seeding is applied differently:

• Southern regions (subtropics and tropics) – here direct sowing is the main method. In Brazil, Mexico, and Southeast Asia, peppers are sown directly into the ground and grow as a perennial crop (Rêgo et al., 2016). In such conditions, several harvests per year are possible.
• Regions with mild winters (Mediterranean, southern USA, Australia) – direct sowing is practiced for late‑summer and autumn crops, while spring plantings are more often done through transplants (Kahn and Leskovar, 2012).
• Regions with short summers (northern areas, highlands, most parts of Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, northern US states, Canada) – direct seeding is used very rarely, mainly for hot varieties that are more stress‑tolerant (Wien and Stützel, 2020). In the central zone of Belarus, for example, sweet peppers are grown exclusively through transplants (Autko et al., 2012).
• Container growing and greenhouses – in protected cultivation (film, polycarbonate, glass), direct sowing is possible even in regions with short summers. The greenhouse creates the necessary temperature regime and protects seedlings from frost.

When Direct Seeding Is Preferable to Transplanting

Direct sowing offers several advantages that make it more attractive in certain situations:

1. Savings in labour and costs. Growing transplants requires time, special conditions, soil, containers, and care. Direct seeding eliminates pricking out, transplanting, and acclimatisation of plants to open ground.

2. No “transplant shock.” Plants grown from the start in their permanent position develop a stronger taproot system. In transplants, especially with careless handling, the taproot is often damaged, resulting in a fibrous, more superficial root system (Leskovar and Cantliffe, 1993). This affects drought tolerance.

3. Possibility of growing on large areas. In commercial vegetable production, especially for mechanised harvesting (e.g., peppers for processing), direct sowing is the only economically viable method (Russo, 2012; Kahn and Leskovar, 2012).

4. Growing in containers and on balconies. With limited space, direct sowing into large containers allows you to create conditions for full plant development without intermediate operations.

When Direct Seeding Is Not Recommended

• If there is a risk of return frosts until the end of May – beginning of June in your region.
• If summers are short and autumns are cold – fruits may not ripen in time.
• If you cannot ensure regular watering until emergence and during the first weeks of plant life.
• If you plan to grow late‑maturing, large‑fruited sweet pepper varieties – they need more time and usually do not manage to produce a crop with direct sowing.

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Site Requirements

• Sun and warmth. Peppers are extremely light‑loving. Choose the warmest and best‑lit area, protected from cold winds (Bosland and Votava, 2012). In the northern hemisphere, southern and south‑western slopes are preferred. Even slight shading from trees, buildings, or tall crops significantly reduces yield.
• Good drainage. Peppers do not tolerate waterlogging, especially in cold soil: roots easily rot and seedlings are affected by root rots (Wien and Stützel, 2020). The site should be level or with a slight slope for excess water runoff. With a high water table, raised beds are made.
• Fertile, loose soil. Sandy loams and loams with high organic matter content, neutral or slightly acidic reaction (pH 6.0–6.8) are ideal (Bosland and Votava, 2012). On heavy clay soils, quickly drying sands, and acidic soils, direct seeding often fails.
• Crop rotation considerations. Peppers should not be sown after other solanaceous crops (tomatoes, potatoes, eggplants, tomatillos) and should not be returned to the same place for at least 3–4 years to avoid the build‑up of soil‑borne diseases (Autko et al., 2012; Kasynkina and Kudin, 2018). Best predecessors are cucumbers, cabbage, onions, legumes, root crops, and green manures.

Bed Preparation: What Matters for Direct Sowing

Unlike the transplant method, where the root system is already formed, in direct seeding seedlings must develop from the first week in the same soil layer. Therefore, preparation must be especially thorough:

• Deep digging. In autumn, the soil is dug to 25–30 cm with turnover, simultaneously incorporating organic fertilisers (well‑rotted manure or compost – 4–6 kg per m²) and phosphorus‑potassium fertilisers based on agrochemical analysis (Autko et al., 2012). Nitrogen fertilisers are best applied in spring to avoid leaching.
• Spring tilling and levelling. Early in spring, as soon as the soil is ready, harrowing and cultivation to a depth of 10–12 cm are carried out to conserve moisture and destroy weed seedlings (Kasynkina and Kudin, 2018). The bed surface must be perfectly level – this ensures uniform seeding depth.
• Bed shaping. In cold and humid regions, peppers are sown on raised beds (15–25 cm) – they warm up faster and drain better (Bosland and Votava, 2012). In hot arid areas, on the other hand, flat beds or even slight depressions are preferred to retain moisture in the root zone.
• Special attention to warming. Since pepper seeds germinate only at soil temperatures above 15 °C (optimally 25–30 °C), for the direct seeding method it is critical to accelerate spring warming of the bed. The most effective technique is covering with clear plastic film (polyethylene or agrofabric) 1–2 weeks before sowing. The film raises the temperature of the top layer by 3–5 °C and retains moisture (Cavero et al., 1996). In cold regions, beds are sometimes made with a southern slope (“solar beds”) to better capture solar heat.
• Weed control. In direct seeding, weeds are doubly dangerous – they intercept light, moisture, and nutrients from slowly growing seedlings. Therefore, 2–3 weeks before sowing, it is useful to provoke weed germination (watering + tilling) and destroy them with surface treatment. After sowing, mulching or herbicides according to instructions can be used.
• Use of mulch. Black film or dark agrofabric is a classic technique for direct‑seeded peppers. It suppresses weeds, retains heat and moisture, and keeps fruits clean (Russo, 2012; Kahn and Leskovar, 2012). When sowing through film, cross‑shaped slits or holes are made, into which seeds are sown. White or silver mulch, on the contrary, reflects light and is useful in hot climates to reduce root overheating (Díaz‑Pérez, 2010).
• Drip irrigation. For direct sowing, it is advisable to lay drip tape immediately – this provides precise watering without over‑wetting and does not wash away soil, which is especially important before emergence.

Thus, the key difference in preparation for direct seeding is maximum attention to soil warming, weed‑free conditions, and moisture conservation. These three factors determine the success of direct sowing of peppers.

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Choosing Quality Seeds

It all starts with the seeds. For direct seeding, only first‑class seeds with the following indicators are used (Autko et al., 2012; Kasynkina and Kudin, 2018):

• Germination – not less than 80–85 % (for hybrids often 95 % required).
• Varietal purity – at least 98–99 %.
• Germination energy – ability to produce uniform seedlings in a short time.

Special attention is paid to seed size: large seeds (diameter 3.5–4.2 mm) germinate 2 days earlier and produce more vigorous plants than small ones (less than 3 mm) (Bosland and Votava, 2012). Therefore, for direct seeding, it is recommended to calibrate seeds (e.g., in 3–5 % salt solution) and use only those that sink to the bottom.

Disinfection (Seed Treatment)

Pepper seeds can carry pathogens of bacterial spot, viruses, and fungal infections on the surface and inside the seed coat (Sundstrom, 1992). For direct seeding, where plants are in the soil from the start, disinfection is critically important.

The most accessible and effective methods:

1. Heat treatment – warming seeds in water at 50–52 °C for 20–25 minutes. This method destroys most pathogens, but requires precise temperature control: above 55 °C seeds lose viability. After heating, seeds are immediately cooled in cold water (Autko et al., 2012; Kasynkina and Kudin, 2018).

2. Chemical disinfection:

• 1 % potassium permanganate solution – soak for 20–30 minutes, then rinse thoroughly with clean water. This is the most common method in amateur gardening (Autko et al., 2012).
• 20 % hydrochloric acid solution – treatment for 30 minutes (for professionals, requires caution and acid‑resistant containers).
• Fungicidal seed dressers (e.g., TMTD, foundationazole) – applied 1–15 days before sowing at 5–6 g per 1 kg of seeds, especially when there is a risk of Fusarium wilt (Autko et al., 2012).

After disinfection, seeds must be rinsed and soaked in clean water for 12–16 hours to restore moisture content.

Stimulation of Germination

Pepper seeds germinate slowly even under optimal conditions: at 25 °C it takes 6–9 days, and at 15 °C up to 3 weeks (Wien and Stützel, 2020). In open ground, where temperatures are often below optimum, each day of delay increases the risk of seedling damage. Therefore, direct seeding almost always requires stimulating treatment.

Soaking in biologically active solutions:

• Aloe juice – undiluted, soak for 12 hours. The juice contains phytoncides and growth stimulants, increases germination energy and disease resistance (Autko et al., 2012).
• Microelement solutions – a mixture of boron, manganese, zinc, molybdenum, copper (0.02–0.05 %) for 24 hours. Such treatment accelerates germination and increases yield (Kasynkina and Kudin, 2018; Autko et al., 2012).
• Growth regulators – e.g., “Epin,” “Zircon,” or “Agat‑25K” according to instructions. They enhance enzymatic activity and help seeds overcome temperature stress (Wien and Stützel, 2020).

Warming dry seeds – this technique is especially useful for seeds from the previous year’s harvest that have not yet completed physiological ripening. Seeds are placed for 2–3 hours in a thermostat at 50 °C or for 5–7 days near a heating radiator. Warming increases germination energy and the proportion of female flowers (Sundstrom, 1992).

Priming (Pre‑Sowing Hardening)

Priming is a technology in which seeds undergo the initial stages of germination (imbibition, enzyme activation) without producing a radicle, and are then dried back to a free‑flowing state. As a result, seeds emerge 3–7 days earlier and much more uniformly after sowing (Bradford et al., 1990; Bosland and Votava, 2012).

Several types of priming are used for peppers:

• Osmopriming – soaking in a polyethylene glycol (PEG) solution with high osmotic pressure that prevents the radicle from protruding. The process lasts 5–7 days at 20–25 °C.
• Matriconditioning – mixing seeds with moist vermiculite or peat, which provides gradual water uptake without over‑wetting.
• Hydropriming – simple soaking in water followed by drying, but this method is less reliable for peppers.
• Priming with additives – KNO₃ (to break dormancy) or 24‑epibrassinolide is added to the priming solution, further stimulating growth (da Silva et al., 2015).

Important: primed seeds cannot be stored for long (sow within 2–3 weeks), and after sowing they require good moisture to quickly initiate root growth (Bradford et al., 1990).

Bubbling (Oxygenation)

This is the saturation of seeds with oxygen during soaking. Seeds are placed in a container with water at room temperature and air is supplied from an aquarium compressor for 12–18 hours. Bubbling significantly accelerates germination, especially at low soil temperatures (Autko et al., 2012). The method is very effective but requires special equipment, so it is more often used in commercial farms.

Pelleting

For small and irregularly shaped pepper seeds (especially expensive hybrids), pelleting is practiced – coating with a mixture of peat, clay, adhesive, and fertilisers. Pelleted seeds are larger, easier to sow at uniform spacing, retain moisture better, and germinate faster (Bosland and Votava, 2012). In amateur gardening, pelleted seeds can be purchased ready‑made.

What Is Especially Important for Direct Seeding?

In direct sowing, the key task is to shorten the time from sowing to emergence. The faster the seedling appears, the less chance for soil pathogens and weeds. Therefore, for direct seeding the following are strongly recommended:

• mandatory disinfection (soil infection is the main enemy);
• priming or soaking with stimulants (to “wake up” the seeds long before they are placed in the soil);
• warming (if the soil is cold).

In regions with warm climates and early springs, simple soaking in water for 12 hours and sowing moist seeds may suffice. In cool and transitional zones, without priming or bubbling, the risk of losing seedlings increases many times over.

Quick Step‑by‑Step Checklist

1. Calibrate seeds (dip in 3–5 % salt solution, take only those that sink).

2. Disinfect (1 % potassium permanganate – 20 min or heating at 50 °C – 20 min).

3. Rinse and soak for 12–16 h in clean water or stimulant solution (aloe juice, microelements).

4. Optionally, perform priming or bubbling.

5. Dry seeds to a free‑flowing state (do not allow complete drying if you used priming).

6. Sow into moist, warmed soil as early as possible, but only after the temperature at sowing depth reaches 16–18 °C (optimally 25 °C).

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Sowing Dates

The main rule for direct seeding of peppers: do not rush. Unlike transplants that can be grown in a greenhouse, seeds in open ground cannot tolerate return frosts and cold, prolonged springs. The optimal time comes when:

• soil temperature at sowing depth (3–5 cm) consistently exceeds 16–18 °C, and preferably reaches 20–25 °C (Bosland and Votava, 2012);
• the danger of frost has passed (peppers die even with a short drop to –0.5 °C);
• average daily air temperature is at least 18–20 °C.

In the temperate zone, this is usually the second half of May – early June (Autko et al., 2012; Kasynkina and Kudin, 2018). In warmer regions (Mediterranean, southern USA, subtropics), sowing is done in early spring, and in the tropics – two or three times a year, depending on the rainy seasons (Rêgo et al., 2016).

For very early sowings, temporary plastic covers or tunnels made of agrofabric are used – they allow you to gain 2–3 weeks (Kahn and Leskovar, 2012). But even then, you cannot sow into unheated soil: seeds may rot.

Sowing Pattern and Plant Density

Peppers are bushy plants; each plant needs enough space for canopy and root development. Optimal density depends on:

• type and variety – sweet (especially large‑fruited) requires more area than hot small‑fruited;
• growth habit – determinate (bushy, compact) are sown denser, indeterminate (vigorous) – sparser;
• climate – in hot dry climates, slightly denser planting is beneficial so that leaves shade fruits from sunscald (Rylski and Spigelman, 1986).

For direct seeding, several patterns are used (Kahn and Leskovar, 2012; Kasynkina and Kudin, 2018):

For amateur gardens, band patterns are often used – for example, two rows with 30–40 cm between them and 60–70 cm between bands (Autko et al., 2012). This facilitates care and watering.

Sowing Depth

Depth is one of the most critical parameters. Pepper seeds contain a small nutrient reserve, and if buried too deep, the seedling will not have enough strength to reach the surface. If sown too shallow, seeds will dry out.

• Recommended depth – 1.5–2.5 cm on light soils and 1–1.5 cm on heavy clays (Bosland and Votava, 2012; Wien and Stützel, 2020).
• In dry conditions, deepening to 3 cm is acceptable to place seeds in the moist layer (Kahn and Leskovar, 2012).
• On sandy soils, sow slightly deeper; on loams, shallower.
• After sowing, the soil must be rolled or compacted – this ensures good seed‑to‑soil contact and capillary water rise. Without rolling, emergence can be uneven (Autko et al., 2012).

Sowing Methods

Specifics of Sowing Hot and Sweet Peppers

• Hot pepper – more resilient, its seeds germinate slightly faster at lower temperatures, so it can be sown a little earlier and at higher densities (up to 100,000 plants/ha). For many hot pepper varieties, denser planting is even recommended to limit bush size and facilitate harvesting (Sundstrom, 1992).
• Sweet pepper – requires more warmth and space. It needs a wider spacing (at least 30–35 cm between plants) and warmer soil at sowing time. For large‑fruited varieties (e.g., ‘California Wonder’, ‘Pharaoh’), hill sowing is widely used to select the best specimen.

Mandatory Post‑Sowing Practices

1. Watering – necessary immediately after sowing, even if the soil is moist. Water compacts the soil and ensures contact with seeds. A fine‑spray sprinkler is best to avoid washing out furrows.

2. Rolling (or soil compaction) – can be done with a light roller, a board, or by hand. This is especially important on light soils.

3. Mulching with a thin layer of peat, compost, or dry soil – protects the soil from drying out and crust formation (Kahn and Leskovar, 2012). The mulch layer should not exceed 0.5–1 cm so as not to hinder emergence.

4. Shading (under very bright spring sun) – if hot weather is expected, seedlings may get sunburn. Use agrofabric or old newspapers for 2–3 days after the first hooks appear.

Warming the Soil After Sowing (for Cold Regions)

If soil temperature is still unstable, immediately after sowing the bed is covered with clear plastic film or agrofabric on hoops. This creates a greenhouse effect and speeds up emergence. The film is removed when mass emergence occurs (usually after 7–12 days). In regions with possible frosts, the cover is kept until stable warmth, providing ventilation during the day (Kahn and Leskovar, 2012).

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Watering Regime

Watering is the most important element of care for direct‑seeded peppers, especially from sowing to the appearance of 3–4 true leaves. The root system of young plants is shallow and weak, so even short‑term drying of the topsoil leads to growth arrest and even seedling death (Beese et al., 1982; Wien and Stützel, 2020).

Basic watering rules:

• The first 2–3 weeks after emergence, water regularly, not allowing the soil to dry out at a depth of 2–3 cm. Use fine‑drop sprinkling or root watering to avoid washing away soil and damaging tender stems (Kahn and Leskovar, 2012).
• Frequency depends on weather and soil type: on light sandy soils – every 2–3 days, on loams – 1–2 times a week. In hot weather, water more often; in cool weather, less.
• Water volume – per watering, the soil should be wetted to a depth of 15–20 cm (this encourages deep root development). On average, this is 2–3 litres per plant or 15–20 litres per m² of bed (Autko et al., 2012).
• Water should be warm (not below 18–20 °C). Cold water causes shock, slows growth, and can provoke root rots (Wien and Stützel, 2020).
• Mulching (black film, straw, compost) significantly reduces evaporation and allows less frequent watering, especially in hot weather (Kahn and Leskovar, 2012).

Important difference from transplants: transplants already have a formed root system and can withstand short‑term stress. Direct‑seeded plants are extremely dependent on stable moisture in the first weeks. Therefore, do not allow even slight wilting – it almost always leads to irreversible growth retardation.

Tillage and Weeding

Weeds are the main competitors of young peppers. They intercept light, water, and nutrients, and create a favourable environment for pests. Direct‑seeded peppers suffer particularly from weeds because their emergence is slow (7–14 days), and during this period weeds manage to outpace the crop (Kasynkina and Kudin, 2018).

How to control weeds:

• Before emergence, light harrowing (if row sowing) or manual weeding between rows can be done to destroy weed seedlings.
• After emergence, inter‑row cultivation is carried out regularly (every 7–10 days) to a depth of no more than 5–8 cm – to avoid damaging surface roots. Pepper roots are very sensitive to mechanical damage (Leskovar and Cantliffe, 1993).
• Within rows, weeds are removed by hand, carefully, so as not to pull out the crop plants. It is best to do this after watering, when the soil is moist and weeds pull out more easily.
• Mulching film or a layer of organic mulch (peat, straw, mown grass 5–10 cm thick) significantly reduces the need for weeding (Kahn and Leskovar, 2012).
• In large operations, herbicides are used, but for amateurs this is not recommended – it is easy to damage the crop. If used, only strictly according to instructions, with special products for solanaceous crops (e.g., ‘Stomp’ at the pre‑emergence stage) (Autko et al., 2012).

Thinning

If you sowed with a reserve (hill sowing or with excess seeds), thinning must be done when plants have 2–3 true leaves (usually 3–4 weeks after emergence). Leave one strongest plant per hole or per planned position.

Thinning rules:

• Remove weak, underdeveloped, damaged, or diseased specimens.
• Leave plants with thick stems, large green leaves, and a good root system.
• The distance between remaining plants should match the chosen pattern (see section 4).
• Do not pull out extra plants – cut them with scissors at soil level to avoid damaging the roots of the neighbouring plant (Kahn and Leskovar, 2012).
• Thinning is best done on a cloudy day or in the evening, and water afterwards.

If you sowed one seed at precise spacing, thinning is not needed, but selective replacement of dead plants can be done by resowing (add a new seed to the hole and cover with moist soil).

Fertilisation (Fertigation)

Young pepper plants need balanced nutrition, but in the early stages it is better not to overfeed. In the first 3–4 weeks, peppers use the nutrient reserves in the seed and soil, so the first fertilisation is carried out no earlier than 3–4 weeks after emergence (Pinto et al., 2016).

Fertilisation guidelines:

• First fertilisation – with a compound fertiliser rich in nitrogen and phosphorus (e.g., N : P : K ≈ 10 : 20 : 10) at 10–15 g per 10 L of water, applied to the root (Autko et al., 2012).
• Second fertilisation – at the budding stage (about 6–8 weeks) – apply a fertiliser with higher potassium content (N : P : K ≈ 10 : 10 : 20) to stimulate flowering and fruit set (Wien and Stützel, 2020).
• Frequency – on average once every 10–14 days. On poor soils or with heavy rainfall (leaching nitrogen), fertilisation is increased to once every 7 days (Kahn and Leskovar, 2012).
• Organic fertilisers – manure slurry (1 : 10) or poultry manure (1 : 20) should be given no more than once a month, alternating with mineral fertilisers.
• Foliar fertilisation (on leaves) with microelement solutions (boron, zinc, magnesium) is useful when signs of chlorosis or growth retardation appear (Pinto et al., 2016).

Important: with direct seeding, the root system develops more slowly than with transplants, so fertiliser concentrations should be lower (20–30 % weaker than recommended) to avoid burning young roots.

Protection from Frost and Low Temperatures

Direct‑seeded peppers are most vulnerable in the first 4–6 weeks – exactly when return frosts may occur. Even temperatures of +2…+4 °C can cause growth retardation, and 0 °C or below – seedling death.

Protection methods:

• Hooped covers – agrofabric (spunbond, lutrasil) or film on a frame. During the day, covers are opened for ventilation, at night closed. This raises temperature by 3–5 °C (Kahn and Leskovar, 2012).
• Hilling – if frost threatens, you can hill up plants to the first leaves, but no later than 2 weeks after emergence (so as not to cover the growing point).
• Shading – on hot sunny days after frost, young plants may get burns, so they should be shaded for 2–3 days.
• Black film mulching – not only warms the soil but also protects against short‑term frosts by retaining heat accumulated during the day (Cavero et al., 1996).

Temperature and Light Regime

Peppers love warmth and light. Optimal daytime temperature for growth is 22–27 °C, night 16–18 °C. At temperatures above 32 °C and below 12 °C, growth slows (Wien and Stützel, 2020).

• In cool weather (15–18 °C), plants grow slowly but do not die. Growth can be accelerated by covering and watering with warm water.
• In heat (above 30 °C), it is especially important to maintain soil moisture and, if possible, spray leaves with water in the morning to cool them.
• Peppers are short‑day plants in some varieties, but most modern varieties are day‑neutral. However, when sown in shaded places, yield is always lower (Bosland and Votava, 2012).

Protection from Pests and Diseases

Young pepper seedlings attract many pests: aphids, thrips, flea beetles, spider mites, as well as soil‑dwelling insects (wireworms, mole crickets). Diseases – root rots, damping‑off, bacterial spot – can also destroy plantings.

Preventive measures:

• Crop rotation (do not plant after solanaceous crops) – the main preventive measure (Autko et al., 2012).
• Disinfected seeds (see section 3) – minimise the risk of bacterial and fungal diseases.
• Regular inspection – when the first pests or disease symptoms are detected, use biological products (Fitoverm, Lepidocide) or folk remedies (garlic infusion, pepper, tobacco dust) (Pinto et al., 2016). In severe cases – chemical insecticides and fungicides strictly according to instructions, observing pre‑harvest intervals.
• Biological protection – planting repellent plants (marigolds, calendula, basil) near the beds repels many insects.

Mulching and Its Role During the Growth Stage

After emergence, inter‑rows and the root zone can be mulched with straw, hay, aged sawdust, or mown grass in a layer of 5–8 cm (Kahn and Leskovar, 2012). This:

• retains moisture;
• suppresses weeds;
• prevents root overheating in hot weather;
• protects fruits from contact with wet soil.

However, do not use fresh undecomposed organic matter – it can cause nitrogen starvation and attract pests.

Specifics of Care for Hot and Sweet Varieties

• Hot pepper is often more tolerant of adverse conditions, so less frequent watering can be applied, but it also needs a weed‑free bed. For some hot varieties, a slight drought stress is even beneficial to increase pungency (Wien and Stützel, 2020).
• Sweet pepper requires more regular watering and fertilisation, as its fruits are fleshier and need more potassium. Sweet peppers often suffer from blossom‑end rot – a consequence of calcium deficiency and uneven watering. Regular and uniform watering is the best prevention (Bosland and Votava, 2012).

Final Care Checklist for the First Weeks

1. Water regularly, not allowing drying out, but also not over‑watering.

2. Cultivate between rows after each watering (after 1–2 days).

3. Remove weeds manually within rows.

4. Thin at the 2–3 true leaf stage.

5. First fertilisation – 3–4 weeks after emergence.

6. Protect from frost and shade from intense sun.

7. Inspect plants for pests and diseases.

8. Mulch between rows to reduce evaporation.

With good care, 30–40 days after emergence, pepper plants will form a strong bush and enter the flowering phase – then care transitions to a new level (shaping, staking, maintaining fruiting), but that is covered in specialised materials.

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Growing in Containers

Containers (pots, boxes, planters, grow bags) are an excellent solution for urban gardeners, those with small plots, and those who want maximum control over growing conditions.

Advantages:

• Mobility – the container can be moved to a warm place, protected from wind or rain.
• The soil in containers warms up faster than in open ground, allowing earlier sowing.
• Easier control of moisture, soil quality, and nutrition.
• Eliminates problems with weeds and soil‑borne diseases.

Specifics of sowing and care:

• Container size – at least 10–15 litres per plant (for sweet large‑fruited – 15–20 L). Depth – from 25 cm to allow free root development.
• Substrate – loose, fertile potting mix with neutral reaction (pH 6.0–6.8) and good drainage. Optimal composition: 2 parts garden soil + 1 part compost + 1 part sand or vermiculite.
• Drainage is mandatory (expanded clay, broken brick, coarse sand) – waterlogging in a container is fatal.
• Sowing – depth 1–2 cm, 1–2 seeds per container (with subsequent removal of the weaker one). Planting pattern in a container is not critical – just leave 30–40 cm between plants.
• Watering – in containers, soil dries out faster than in open ground. In hot weather, watering 1–2 times a day in small portions is required to avoid water stagnation (Wien and Stützel, 2020).
• Fertilisation – more frequent than in open ground (every 7–10 days), but at lower concentrations, as nutrients are quickly leached from the limited volume. Use water‑soluble compound fertilisers for solanaceous crops.
• Protection from overheating – in hot weather, containers should be shaded (white covering material, move to partial shade) because roots in dark pots overheat faster.
• Varieties – for containers, choose compact, determinate or dwarf varieties (e.g., ‘Megatron’, ‘Chudo Podmoskovya’, mini‑peppers). Hot varieties with small fruits (e.g., ‘Pip’ or ‘Little Wonder’) are particularly convenient.

Growing in Greenhouses

Greenhouses made of polycarbonate, glass, or film allow sowing peppers directly into the ground 2–4 weeks earlier than in open ground and extend fruiting until late autumn (Kahn and Leskovar, 2012).

Specifics of sowing and care:

• Sowing dates – in an unheated greenhouse – when daytime air temperature inside reaches 18–22 °C and nighttime does not drop below 12 °C. In heated greenhouses, year‑round sowing is possible.
• Bed preparation – standard, but with more careful levelling and loosening. In greenhouses, raised beds (15–20 cm) are often used for better drainage.
• Sowing pattern – usually denser (up to 4–5 plants per m²) due to vertical trellising and staking (Russo, 2012).
• Pollination – in protected cultivation, peppers (as self‑pollinators) need some assistance: gentle shaking of plants or stems during flowering, use of ventilation, and attracting bumblebees (in large greenhouses) significantly improves fruit set (Bosland and Votava, 2012).
• Humidity – in a greenhouse, it is important to avoid excessive humidity to prevent fungal diseases (powdery mildew, late blight). Ventilation is essential in warm weather.
• Temperature control – on sunny days, the greenhouse can overheat to 40 °C, causing flower drop. Shading (spunbond, agrofabric) or a ventilation system (windows, automatic openers) is necessary (Wien and Stützel, 2020).
• Watering – drip irrigation is preferred to avoid air humidification and leaf diseases. Frequency – as in open ground, but considering faster drying on hot days.
• Varieties – for greenhouses, indeterminate (tall) and parthenocarpic (pollination‑not‑required) varieties and hybrids that yield over several months are best suited (‘Verlioka’, ‘Energo F1’, ‘Samander’, ‘Cornet’ – for sweet; ‘Habanero’, ‘Tabasco’ – for hot) (Kasynkina and Kudin, 2018).

Brief summary: containers and greenhouses expand the geography of the direct seeding method, allowing pepper harvests in regions with short summers and even in urban conditions. The key is to control watering, nutrition, temperature, and humidity.

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Brief Characteristics of the Methods

Advantages of the Direct Seeding Method

1. No transplant stress

Plants grown from the start in their permanent position develop a taproot system that penetrates deeper into the soil. Such plants tolerate drought better and are more resistant to wind throw (Leskovar and Cantliffe, 1993). In transplants, especially if the root ball is disturbed, the root system becomes fibrous and more superficial.

2. Savings in time and resources

No need to spend time and money on purchasing soil, containers, heating greenhouses, and supplementary lighting. The labour‑intensive transplanting operation is also eliminated, which in large farms requires special machinery (Kahn and Leskovar, 2012).

3. Less susceptibility to “transplant shock”

After planting out, transplants often stop growing for 1–2 weeks, even under ideal conditions. Direct‑seeded plants develop continuously from germination (Wien and Stützel, 2020).

4. Possibility of mechanised sowing

In commercial vegetable production, direct sowing is easily automated: precision seed drills are used, reducing labour costs by 50–70 % compared to manual transplanting (Russo, 2012). This is particularly important for peppers intended for processing.

5. Natural adaptation to local climate

Seeds germinating in the same conditions in which they are to grow produce plants better adapted to local temperature and moisture fluctuations (Bosland and Votava, 2012).

Disadvantages of the Direct Seeding Method

1. Strong dependence on weather

Direct sowing is possible only after stable warm weather sets in. In regions with late frosts, sowing is delayed, shortening the growing season, and the crop may not ripen (Wien and Stützel, 2020).

2. Slower development in the first weeks

Seedlings grow more slowly than transplants, which at transplanting time already have 6–8 true leaves. This gives weeds an advantage: they can smother the crop if weeding is not timely (Kasynkina and Kudin, 2018).

3. Higher risk of seedling loss

Seeds in open ground are exposed to soil pests (wireworms, mole crickets, May beetle larvae) as well as fungal diseases (root rots, damping‑off). Seedlings can be destroyed by hail or strong winds (Autko et al., 2012).

4. Not suitable for all varieties

Large‑fruited and late‑maturing sweet pepper varieties often fail to produce a full crop with direct sowing in temperate climates. For them, the transplant method is mandatory (Bosland and Votava, 2012).

5. Less control over early development

During the transplant period, temperature, humidity, light, and nutrition can be precisely regulated, producing the strongest and healthiest plants. In open ground, such control is absent.

Advantages of the Transplant Method

1. Earlier and more abundant yield

Transplants provide a head start of 40–70 days, so fruits ripen 2–3 weeks earlier than with direct sowing. In northern regions, this is often the only way to get a harvest (Leskovar and Cantliffe, 1993; Autko et al., 2012).

2. Possibility of using expensive and rare hybrids

Hybrid seeds are costly, and in the transplant method each plant has a better chance of survival and payback. With direct sowing, some seeds may be lost, increasing costs (Kahn and Leskovar, 2012).

3. Better resistance to stress after transplanting

Well‑hardened transplants with a developed root system tolerate short‑term frosts, drought, and wind better than tender seedlings from seed (Wien and Stützel, 2020).

4. Convenience of planning

Transplants can be grown at any time regardless of outdoor weather, and planted at the optimum time when the soil warms up. This gives greater flexibility in crop rotation.

Disadvantages of the Transplant Method

1. Labour and cost intensity

Growing transplants requires special equipment (lights, heating, shelving), purchase of soil, containers, and constant care (watering, fertilisation, hardening). This increases production costs (Russo, 2012).

2. Transplant shock

Even with careful transplanting, plants lose some roots and stop growing for 7–14 days. This negates part of the early start advantage (Leskovar and Cantliffe, 1993).

3. Scale limitations

In large farms, the transplant method requires large areas of protected cultivation, which is not always economically justified. For commercial pepper plantations for processing, transplants are almost never used.

4. Risk of overgrowing

If weather delays planting, transplants overgrow, become leggy, and establish less well. The optimal age for planting out is 50–60 days, and exceeding this reduces yield (Kasynkina and Kudin, 2018).

Which Method to Choose When?

Final Summary

Direct seeding is a choice for simplicity, economy, and naturalness. It is ideal for warm regions, commercial plantations, and for gardeners who value their time and can provide an early start with covers and soil warming. However, it requires patience and does not guarantee results in an unstable climate.

Transplanting is a choice for reliability, early yield, and control. It is indispensable in regions with short summers, for expensive varieties, and for those who want fruits as early as possible. However, it requires greater investment and effort.

Ideally, an experienced gardener combines both methods: part of the plot is planted with transplants for early yield, and part with direct seeding for the main harvest, especially for hot varieties. This approach minimises risks and ensures a continuous supply of fresh fruit throughout the season.

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Mistake 1. Sowing in Cold, Unwarmed Soil

Peppers are heat‑loving. Seeds do not germinate at soil temperatures below 13–15 °C, and at 10–12 °C they simply rot without even swelling (Bosland and Votava, 2012). Many gardeners, eager for early harvests, sow too early, relying on the calendar rather than actual temperature.

How to avoid: measure soil temperature at a depth of 3–5 cm (optimally 20–25 °C). Wait until the danger of frost has passed and the soil has stably warmed. In cool regions, use film or agrofabric covers 1–2 weeks before sowing to accelerate warming (Cavero et al., 1996).

Mistake 2. Sowing Too Deep or Too Shallow

Sowing depth is one of the most critical parameters. At depths greater than 3 cm, the seedling lacks the strength to break through to the surface, especially on heavy soils. At depths less than 1 cm, seeds dry out, even with regular watering – the topsoil loses moisture faster than the seed can imbibe and germinate (Wien and Stützel, 2020).

How to avoid: follow the recommended depth – 1.5–2.5 cm on light soils and 1–1.5 cm on loams (Bosland and Votava, 2012). After sowing, roll or compact the soil to ensure seed‑to‑soil contact.

Mistake 3. Over‑Watering or Drying Out of Soil During Emergence

Pepper seeds require stable moisture but cannot tolerate waterlogging. Excess moisture promotes root rots, seed rot, and damping‑off. Insufficient moisture prevents germination, and emerging seedlings quickly die (Beese et al., 1982).

How to avoid: water regularly but moderately, maintaining soil moisture at 70–80 % of field capacity. The best method is drip irrigation or furrow watering to avoid water pooling at stem bases. Mulching reduces evaporation and stabilises moisture (Kahn and Leskovar, 2012).

Mistake 4. Overcrowded Sowing

Placing seeds too closely is one of the most common mistakes among beginners. Crowded plants compete for light, water, and nutrients, become leggy, have thin stems, and produce small fruits. Moreover, crowding promotes disease spread due to poor ventilation (Russo, 2012).

How to avoid: strictly follow the recommended sowing pattern (see section 4). If you sowed with a reserve, thin the seedlings at the 2–3 true leaf stage, leaving one strong plant per planned position. Remove weak specimens by cutting them with scissors to avoid damaging neighbours’ roots (Kahn and Leskovar, 2012).

Mistake 5. Untimely or Improper Thinning

Delaying thinning leads to early competition between plants. If extra plants are removed too late (when roots have intertwined), remaining plants can be damaged. Conversely, excessive thinning (too sparse planting) reduces yield per unit area (Kasynkina and Kudin, 2018).

How to avoid: thin no later than the 3–4 true leaf stage. Leave distances appropriate for the variety and growth habit (see table in section 4). Do this on a cloudy day or in the evening, after watering, to reduce stress.

Mistake 6. Ignoring Weed Control

Weeds are the main enemy of direct‑seeded peppers in the first 4–6 weeks. They grow faster, shade seedlings, and intercept moisture and nutrients. Particularly dangerous are perennial rhizomatous weeds (couch grass, sow thistle, ground elder) that can “choke” young plants (Autko et al., 2012).

How to avoid: regularly weed the beds, cultivate between rows (no deeper than 5–8 cm). Use mulch (black film, straw, mown grass) – it suppresses up to 90 % of weeds. As a last resort, apply pre‑emergence herbicides strictly according to instructions, but on small plots mechanical weeding is preferable (Kahn and Leskovar, 2012).

Mistake 7. Insufficient or Excessive Nutrition

With direct seeding, the root system develops more slowly, and plants may experience nutrient deficiencies. On the other hand, excess fertiliser, especially nitrogen, causes lush vegetative growth at the expense of fruiting, and increases susceptibility to diseases (Wien and Stützel, 2020).

How to avoid: give the first fertilisation no earlier than 3–4 weeks after emergence, using compound fertilisers at half concentration. At the budding stage, switch to fertilisers with higher potassium and phosphorus (Pinto et al., 2016). Regularly inspect leaves – they serve as indicators of deficiency (yellowing, curling, small leaves signal a need for feeding).

Mistake 8. Sowing Inappropriate Varieties

Late‑maturing, large‑fruited varieties bred for a long season fail to produce a crop with direct sowing in regions with short summers. Even in warm climates, they may not give full yield if the growing season is shorter than expected (Bosland and Votava, 2012).

How to avoid: choose only early‑ripening and ultra‑early varieties with a period from emergence to technical ripeness of 85–100 days. For sweet peppers – ‘Zolotse’, ‘Zaznaika’, ‘Aramis’, ‘Blondin’, ‘Olenka’ (Kasynkina and Kudin, 2018). For hot – ‘Astrakhansky 147’, ‘Chudo Podmoskovya’, ‘Eagle’s Claw’. In warm regions, mid‑season varieties can be used, but always with a time buffer.

Mistake 9. Neglecting Protection from Frost and Overheating

Return frosts can kill seedlings overnight. On hot days (above 35 °C), young plants suffer from overheating, especially on sandy soils and in dark containers (Wien and Stützel, 2020).

How to avoid: always have covering material (spunbond, agrofabric) on hand in case of cold snaps. In heat, shade beds from 11 am to 4 pm or use shade nets. For containers, wrap pots with white material to prevent root overheating.

Mistake 10. Lack of Disease and Pest Prevention

Young pepper plants are vulnerable to aphids, thrips, spider mites, and flea beetles. Diseases include root rots, bacterial spot, and viral infections. If a problem is not noticed in time, it can quickly spread across the bed (Pinto et al., 2016).

How to avoid: inspect plants regularly. At the first signs of pests, use biological products (Fitoverm, Lepidocide) or folk remedies (garlic infusion, pepper, ash). Follow crop rotation, do not plant after solanaceous crops. Use disinfected seeds (see section 3). In warm, humid weather, prophylactically spray with copper‑containing preparations (Bordeaux mixture) against fungal diseases (Autko et al., 2012).

Mistake 11. Underestimating the Importance of Mulching

Many gardeners skip this step, considering it optional. But mulch performs several functions: retains moisture, suppresses weeds, protects roots from overheating and cooling, and prevents soil crust formation (Kahn and Leskovar, 2012).

How to avoid: mulch the bed immediately after emergence (or even before sowing, using film). Use black film, agrofabric, straw, compost, or mown grass. A layer of organic mulch – 5–8 cm. Ensure mulch does not touch stems to avoid rot.

Mistake 12. Late Sowing in Regions with Short Summers

Even if you have chosen an early variety and prepared everything correctly, sowing too late may mean no harvest. Peppers need a long warm period: the sum of effective temperatures above 18 °C required for fruit filling is about 2000–2500 °C (Bosland and Votava, 2012). In cool regions, this is difficult to achieve with a late start.

How to avoid: in short‑summer regions, use early varieties and sow as soon as the soil warms (do not wait for a “calendar” date). Combine with covers to extend the season. If possible, switch to the transplant method.

Final Checklist – What NOT to Do:

• Do not sow in cold soil.
• Do not bury seeds deeper than 2.5 cm or shallower than 1 cm.
• Do not over‑water or allow drying out.
• Do not overcrowd sowing.
• Do not delay thinning.
• Do not let weeds smother seedlings.
• Do not fertilise too early or too concentrated.
• Do not choose late varieties for direct seeding.
• Do not forget to protect from frost and heat.
• Do not neglect disease and pest prevention.
• Do not ignore mulching.
• Do not delay sowing in cool regions.

Concluding Remarks

Direct seeding of peppers is not a “simplified” method but a full‑fledged technology that requires knowledge and attention. It forgives mistakes less readily than transplanting because you have no “second chance” – you cannot replant if something goes wrong. But this very feature is its strength: plants grown without transplanting have a more powerful root system, are more drought‑tolerant, and give a stable yield with proper care.

Carefully follow the recommendations from all sections, adapt them to your climate and soil, and you will get excellent results. Good luck in your garden!